SI-1

SI-1

ABC theory of emotions, 682

Abnormal psychology, defined, 20. See also Clinical psychology

Absolute threshold, 250

Accommodation, 426

ACT. See Assertive community treatment (ACT)

Action potentials, 151–154

depolarization phase of, 153

electrical change during, 153

repolarization phase of, 153

Actualizing potential, 678

Adaptation, 58

Additive color mixing, 286. See also Color vision

Adolescence

delinquency and, 485–486

moral reasoning in, 488–489

parental control and, 484

peer relationship and, 484–485

recklessness, 485–486

risk-taking in, 486–487

segregation from adults, 486

sexual explorations in, 489–493

as stage of identity crisis, 483–484

Adulthood

attachment in, 494–495

employment and, 496–497

marital success and, 495

romantic love, 494–495

Affect, as component of emotion, 232. See also Emotion(s)

After birth effect, on sexual orientation, 219–220

Age-mixed play, 478–479

Aggression

defined, 93

sex and, 93–94, 596

testosterone and, 214

Aging

approaching death, 499–500

attention and, 499

memory and, 499

relationships and, 498–499

socioemotional selectivity theory, 497

work and, 499

Agnosia, 302. See also Visual agnosia

Agoraphobia, 635

Agreeableness-antagonism (A), 578, 579, 587

Alleles, 62–63

Altruism, 94–95

kin selection theory, 95–96

reciprocity theory of, 96

Alzheimer’s disease, 626

American Psychological Association, 54

Amino acids, 58

Amnesia

anterograde, 355

infantile, 347–348

retrograde, 355–356

semantic without episodic memory in, 346–348

temporal-lobe, 344–346

Amplitude, 269

Amygdala, 171

in emotions, 239–240

Analgesia. See also Pain

belief-induced, 268

stress-induced, 267–268

Analogies, 371–375

cross-species comparisons

defined, 82

and distal functions of species-typical behaviors, 85

defined, 372

fast/slow, 374–375

in judicial reasoning, 374

in persuasion, 374

in political reasoning, 374

in scientific reasoning, 373–374

Androstenone, 256

Anger, facial expression of, 79

Anterograde amnesia, 355

Antianxiety drugs, 668–669

Antipsychotic drugs, 667–668

atypical, 668

typical, 668

Antisocial personality disorders, 656

Anxiety disorders, 631–637

agoraphobia, 635

generalized, 631–632

obsessive-compulsive disorder, 636–637

panic disorder, 634–635

phobias, 632–634

PTSD, 635–636

Anxious personality disorders, 658

Ape language learning, 455–457

Apoptosis, 157

Applied behavior analysis, 685

Apprentice, children as, 433–434

Arcuate nucleus, 206

Arousability, 215

Artificial grammars, 343–344. See also Procedural memory

Artificial selection, 70

Assertive community treatment (ACT), 664–665

Assimilation, 426

Association by contiguity law, 9–10

Associations, mental

by contiguity, 358

empiricist philosophy of, 8–9

law of contiguity and, 9

as retrieval cues, 358–360

by similarity, 358

Asymbolia for pain, 266

Attachment

adult, 494–495. See also Romantic love

defined, 462

infants, 462–466

day care and, 466

form and functions of, 463–464

Harlow’s study of, in monkeys, 462–463

parental care and, 465

sensitive care, 464–465

strange-situation measure of quality, 464

sexual drive and, 217

Attention

automatic processing and, 330–332

brain mechanisms of, 332–333

overview, 326–327

practice and, 329–330

preattentive processing, 327

selective listening and, 327

selective viewing, 327–328

shifting of, 328–329

Stroop interference effect, 331–332

Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), 623–625

Attitude

action and, 534–535

avoiding dissonant information, 534

classical conditioning and, 531–532

cognitive consistency and, 533–536

defined, 528

explicit

behavior and, 529–530

defined, 528–529

negative, 529

heuristics and, 532

implicit

behavior and, 529

defined, 529

positive, 529

insufficient-justification effect, 535–536

logical analysis of message, 532–533

origins, 530–533

Attraction, 217. See also Romantic love

Attribution. See Person perception

Auditory canal, 271

Auditory illusion. See Phonemic restoration

Auditory masking, 275. See also Pitch perception

Auditory neurons, 272

Authoritarian, disciplinary style, 36

Authoritarian parents, 474

Authoritative, disciplinary style, 36

Authoritative parents, 474

Autism, 441–442

defined, 49

and facilitated communication, 49–50

Availability bias, 376–377

Avoidant personality disorders, 658

Axons, 151. See also Action potentials; Neurons

Axon terminals, 151

Bar detectors, 294

Basilar membrane, 272

traveling waves on, 273–274

Behavior

defined, 3

distal explanations of, 74–75

functions, analysis of, natural selection and, 11

genes and. See Genes

proximate explanations of, 74–75

SI-2

Behavioral genetics, defined, 15

Behavioral neuroscience, defined, 13

Behavioral psychology. See Learning psychology, defined

Behaviorism

classical conditioning, 106

defined, 106

operant conditioning, 124–125

Behavior therapy, 685–687

case example of, 687

contingency management, 685–686

exposure treatment for fear, 686–687

Belief-induced analgesia, 268

Belief-reality distinction, in children, 440

Beliefs

children and, 439

personality traits and, 604–610

Benzodiazepines, 668–669

Beta waves, 222

Between-groups experiments, 34–35

Bias. See also specific bias

availability, 376–377

confirmation, 377–378

predictable-world, 378–379

in research, 45–52

avoiding, from observer and subject expectancies, 49–51

defined, 45

vs. random variation, 45–46

reliability in measurement and, 47–48

samples, avoiding, 46–47

validity in measurement and, 48

Big Five theory, of personality, 577–580

problem-solving strategies, 587–588

Bilingualism, 453–455

costs and benefits of, 454–455

sequential, 453–454

simultaneous, 453–454

Binocular disparity, 307–308

concept, 307

illusions by, 307–308

Biological preparedness, as basis for species-typical behaviors, 80–81

Biopsychology, defined, 14

Bipolar disorders, 643–644

Bipolar I disorder, 643

Bipolar II disorder, 643

Bitter taste, 261–263

sex and age differences in, 262–263

toxic substances as, 261–262

Blind spot, 284

Blind testing, 51

BMI. See Body mass index (BMI)

Body mass index (BMI), 209

Body-restoration theory, of sleep, 225–226

Borderline personality disorders, 656–657

Bottom-up control, 299

Brain. See also Nervous system; Neurons

amygdala, 171

basal ganglia, 170

brainstem, 168–169

cerebellum, 170

cerebral cortex. See Cerebral cortex

hippocampus, 171

hypothalamus, 171

limbic system, 171

subcortical structures, 168–171

thalamus, 169

Brain damage, localized, observing effects of, 160

Brain-maintenance theory, of sleep, 226

Brainstem, 168–169

animal, 169

medulla, 169

midbrain, 169

pons, 169

Broaden-and-build theory, 387

Broken windows theory of crime, 547–548

CAH. See Congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH)

Cannula, 163

Care, infants

cross-cultural differences in, 466–468

dependence and, 467–468

hunter-gatherer societies, 467

indulgence and, 467–468

interdependence and, 468

Catatonic behavior, 646–647

Cause-effect problem, in parenting style, 475

Cell death, 156–157

Cell membrane, 151–152

Central drive system, 199

Central executive, 334

Cerebral cortex, 171–177

association areas, 172

defined, 171–172

hemispheres, 172

hierarchical organization, 175–177

prefrontal area. See Prefrontal cortex

premotor areas, 174–175

primary motor area, 172

primary sensory areas, 172

sensory areas of, 247–248

topographic organization, 172–174

Children

belief-reality distinction, 440

belief understanding, 439

false-belief understanding, 439

gender identity in, 480–481

gender segregation by, 481–482

mental development. See Mental development

optimism, 608–609

parental discipline styles and, 35–36

phenylketonuria in, 65

play and, 476–479

prosocial behavior, 469–471

empathy and empathic comforting, 469

help, 469–470

sharing, 470–471

social learning, 471–472

verbal explanations, 438–439

Chloride ions, 152

Choking under pressure, 541–542

academic tests, 541

stereotype threat, 542

working-memory explanation, 541–542

Chromosomes

defined, 61

sex, 60

Chunking

defined, 352

in long-term working memory, 352–355

hierarchical organization, 353–354

visualization, 354–355

Circadian rhythm, 230

Circumscription, 298

Classical conditioning, 102–110

attitude and, 531–532

behaviorism and, 106

discrimination training in, 105

of drug reactions, 112–114

extinction in, 104–105

fundamentals of, 102–106

generality of, 103–104

generalization in, 105

as learned expectancy, 107–108

Pavlov’s discovery of, 102–103

procedure of, 103–104

as reflex learning, 102

of sexual arousal, 112

spontaneous recovery in, 104

Clever Hans, 29–33

Client-centered therapy, 678. See also Humanistic therapy

Clinical psychologists, 665

Clinical psychology, defined, 20

Cochlea, 272

inner duct, 272

outer duct, 272

transduction in, 272

Cochlear implant, 273

pitch perception and, 275–276

Coding genes, 59

Cognition

defined, 16

social, 18

Cognition-plus-feedback theory, of emotion, 237

Cognitive-behavioral therapy, 680

Cognitive consistency, 533–536

Cognitive dissonance, as a force for compliance, 553–554

Cognitive misers, 532

Cognitive psychology, defined, 17

Cognitive therapy

Beck’s treatment of depressed young woman, 683–685

case example, 683–685

golas, setting and achieving, 682

for maladaptive beliefs and thoughts, 681–682

mindfulness-based, 684–685

principles of, 680–685

role of therapists as teacher and consultant, 682–683

Collectivism-individualism, as a personality dimension, 611–612

Color afterimages, 289–290. See also Color vision; Opponent-process theory

Color blindness, 288

Color mixing. See also Vision

additive, 286

subtractive, 286

Color vision

additive color mixing, 286

law of complementarity, 286

opponent-process theory, 289–290

subtractive color mixing, 286

three-primaries law, 286

trichromatic theory, 286–289

Comforting, in children, 469

Community-based programs, 666

Complementarity of afterimages, 289–290. See also Color vision; Opponent-process theory

SI-3

Compliance, force for

cognitive dissonance, 553–554

friendship, 556

reciprocity norm, 555–556

shared identity, 556

Compulsive gambling, 204–205. See also Reward

Concepts, mental, empiricism, 8–9

Concordance, 649

Concrete-operational stage, 429

Conditioned stimulus, 103. See also Classical conditioning

Conduction deafness, 272–273

Cones

actual sensitivity curves, 287

in dark and light adaptation, 284–285

defined, 283

rods vs., 284–285

Confirmation bias, 377–378

Conflict

escalation of, 569

resolving by creating common goals, 569–570

Conformity experiment (Asch), 545–547

Congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH), 216

Conscientiousness-undirectedness (C), 578, 579, 587

Contiguity, defined, 9

Contingency management, 685–686

applied behavior analysis, 685

parent management training, 685

Conventional hearing aid, 273

Convergent evolution, 82

Cooperation, 94

accountability and, 565–566

norms of fairness and, 566–567

punishment of cheaters and, 566–567

reciprocity and, 565–566

reputation and, 565–566

social identity and, 568

Core knowledge, infants, 422–425

object permanence, 424

search abilities, 424–425

selective-looking experiments, 423

Cornea, 282, 283

Correlational study

cause and effect determination from, 36–37

defined, 35

example of, 35–36

Correlation coefficient, 37, 42

Counseling psychologists, 665

Counselors, 665

Cranial nerves, 165

Criterion validity, 48

Cross-cultural study, of schizophrenia, 651–653

Crystallized intelligence, 396–397

Cultural differences

infant care, 466–468

IQ (intelligence quotient), 404–407

obesity, 209–211

perception and reasoning, 388–391

personality, 611–613

schizophrenia, 651–653

Cultural influences

on eyebrow flash, 79

on sexual jealousy, 18

Cultural psychology

defined, 18

and social psychology, 18

Danger, 618

Dark adaptation, 284

Data-collection methods, as research dimension, 33, 38–40

observational methods, 39–40

self-report methods, 38–39

Deafness

conduction, 272–273

sensorineural, 273

Death, aging and, 499–500

Deception usage, as ethical issue in human psychological research, 53

Decibels, 269, 270

Deductive reasoning

concept, 380

concrete nature, 380–382

logic, 381–382

Deep brain stimulation, 672

Defense style

immature, 601

intermediate, 601

mature, 601

repressive coping, 599–601

Deinstitutionalization, 664

Delta waves, 222

Delusions, 646

Dendrites, 150. See also Neurons

Dependent personality disorders, 658

Dependent variable, defined, 34

Depressive disorders, 638–643

brain mechanisms of, 641–642

evolutionary bases for, 642–643

generalized anxiety vs., 638–639

negative thought pattern and, 639–640

stressful experiences and, 640–641

Depth perception, 307–310

binocular disparity

concept, 307

illusions by, 307–308

monocular cues for, 308–310

motion parallax, 308–309

pictorial cues, 309–310

Depth-processing theory, 312

Descriptive statistics, 41–43

Descriptive study, defined, 37

Deterministic fallacy, 97–98

Developmental model of schizophrenia, 653

Developmental psychology, defined, 18

Deviance, 617

Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM), 618

Dialectical behavior therapy, 685

Dichromats, 287

Dieting, 211–212. See also Hunger and eating; Obesity

Difference threshold, 250–251

Differential susceptibility to environmental influence, 588–590

Digital natives, 432

Disciplinary styles, parents, 35–36

Discrete emotion theory, 234

Discrimination training

classical conditioning, 105

operant conditioning, 122–123

Disgust, facial expression of, 79

Dishabituation, 420

Disorganized thought and speech, 645–646

Displacement, 597

Distal explanations, 74–75

Distractors, 295–296

Distress, 617

Dizygotic twins. See Fraternal twins

DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid), 58–59

junk, 59

methylation, 69

Dominant gene, 62

Dopamine

in learning, 203

in wanting, 202–203

Dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, 160

Double-blind experiment, 51

Down syndrome, 626

Dreams, 223–224, 227–228. See also Sleep

Drives. See Motivation

Drug addiction, 204

Drug effect, 670

Drugs

compensatory reactions to, 112–113

conditioning of reactions to, 112–114

tolerance to, 113

withdrawal symptoms from, 113–114

Drug therapies

for anxiety, 668–669

for depression, 669–670

placebo effects, 670

for schizophrenia, 667, 668

DSM-5, 618

Dualism, philosophy of, 5–6

Dysfunction, 617–618

Dysthymia, 638

Ear. See also Hearing

inner, 272

middle, 271

outer, 271

parts, 271

Earthworms, 281

ECT. See Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT)

Edge detectors, 294

Educative drives, 198. See also Motivation

EEG. See Electroencephalogram (EEG)

EEG assessment, of sleep, 222

Ego depletion, 519–520

Elaboration likelihood model, 532

Electrical recording, from single neuron, 164

Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT), 671

Electroencephalogram (EEG), 161

Embryonic phase, prenatal development, 415

Emotional contagion, as group cohesion, 549–550

Emotion(s), 231–241

ABC theory of, 682

adaptive functions of, 234–235

bodily responses in, 235–239

brain mechanisms in, 239–241

amygdala, 239–240

prefrontal cortex, 240–241

cognition-plus-feedback theory of, 237

Darwin’s explanation of, 11

defined, 231–232

and facial expressions, 78–80, 83–85

facial feedback and, 237–239

nature and value of, 231–233

other-conscious, 232

peripheral feedback theory of, 236–237

primary, model of, 233–234

role, in human mating systems, 91–92

self-conscious, 232

SI-4

Empathic comforting, in children, 469

Empathy, in children, 469

Empiricism, 8–9

Employment, adult development and, 496–498

Endorphins, 267

in liking, 203

Environment

changes, and natural selection, 72–73

defined, 59

and genes activation, 59–60

Enzymes, 58

Epigenetics, 68–70

Episodic memory, 342. See also Semantic memory

Episodic mental disorders, 626–627

Erikson’s psychosocial stages of development with approximate ages, 598

ERP. See Event-related potential (ERP)

Estradiol, jealousy and, 14

Ethics

in human psychological research, 52–53

in nonhuman animals psychological research, 53

principles, 54

Evaluative conditioning, 111

Event-related potential (ERP), 161

Evidence-based treatment, 688

Evolutionary psychology, defined, 15

Excitatory synapse, 154, 155

Executive functions, 337–340

clinical and societal outcomes, 338–339

defined, 337

developmental stability, 339

experience and, 338

genetic component, 338

neurological basis of, 339–340

unity and diversity, 338

Expectancy theory, 108

Experience

influence on prenatal period, 416–417

influence on vision, 292

Experience-expectant processes, 292

Experiments. See also Tests

avoiding observer-expectancy effects in, 50–51

between-groups, 34–35

defined, 34

double-blind, 51

within-subject, 34

Expert memory, 352–355

Explicit attitude

behavior and, 529–530

defined, 528–529

negative, 529

Explicit memory

concept, 341

episodic, 342

semantic, 342

Explicit stereotypes

defeating, 527–528

defined, 524–525

Exploration, as learning method, 129–131

Exposure treatment. See also Behavior therapy

for fears, 686–687

imaginal exposure, 686

virtual reality exposure, 687

in vivo exposure, 686–687

The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals (Darwin), 234

Extinction

classical conditioning, 104–105

operant conditioning, 119

Extracellular fluid, 152

Extraversion-introversion (E), 578, 579, 587

Eye. See also Vision

functional organization, 282–284

retina, 282–584

rods and cones, 283–285

Eyebrow flash, 79

Face validity, 48

Facial expressions, emotions and, 78–80, 83–85

Facilitated communication, 49–50

Factor analysis, 575–577. See also Personality traits

Facts

defined, 31

and theory, 32

False-belief understanding, in children, 439

False memories

childhood experiences, 362–363

social pressure and, 363–364

source confusion and, 363–364

Farther-larger-nearer theory, 313

Fear

classical conditioning, 110–111

exposure treatment for, 686–687

facial expression of, 79

Mendelian inheritance of, 64–65

specialized learning abilities, 140–141

Feature detection, 293–294

Feature detectors, 294

Feature-integration theory, 294–296

detection of features, 295

parallel processing, 295

primitive sensory features, 294–295

serial processing, 295

Fechner’s law, 252–253

Fetal phase, prenatal development, 415

Field study, defined, 38

Figure-ground relationship, 298

Five-factor model, personality traits, 577–580

Flexion reflex, 168

Fluid intelligence, 395

FMRI. See Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)

Food-aversion learning, 136–138

Food-preference learning, 138

Foot-in-the-door technique, 554

Force for compliance

cognitive dissonance, 553–554

friendship, 556

reciprocity norm, 555–556

shared identity, 556

Formal-operational stage, 429–430

Fovea, 283

Fraternal birth-order effect, 219

Fraternal twins, 62

Free will, 520–521

Frequency, 269–270

Friendship, 556

Fructose, 210

Functional fixedness, 384

Functionalism

defined, 74

limitations of, 76–77

natural selection as basis for, 11, 74–78

Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), 162–163

GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid), 668–669

Gambling, compulsive, neural mechanisms of, 204–205

Gaze following

socail learning, 134–135

Gaze following, infants, 422

Gender differences

children and, 479–482

identity, 480–481

interactions with caregivers, 479–480

self-imposed segregation, 481–482

consequences of shyness, 592

personality traits and, 591–594

play and, 482

sexual preferences, 491–492

Gender identity, in children, 480–481

Gender segregation, by children, 481–482

Generalized anxiety disorders, 631–632

depressive disorders vs., 638–639

Genes, 98. See also Heredity

activation, environment and, 59–60

alleles, 62–63

codes for building proteins, 58–59

coding vs. regulatory, 59

defined, 58

dominant, 62

epigenetics, 68–70

genotype vs. phenotype, 60

heterozygous, 62

homozygous, 62

impact on behavioral traits, 58–60

loci, 62

recessive, 62–63

sexual orientation and, 218–219

and sexual reproduction, 60–61

and sickle-cell anemia, 63–64

Genetic determinism, 78, 97

Genetic disorders, Mendelian inheritance and, 65

Genetic diversity, 62

and natural selection, 71–72

Genetic drift, 77

Genotype vs. phenotype, 60

Geons, 302

Gestalt psychology, 296–298

closure, 297

continuation, 297

figure-ground relationship, 298

form, 297

movement, 297

principles of grouping, 297

proximity, 297

similarity, 297

Glomeruli, 254

Grammar

children’s invention of, 450–451

defined, 444

implicit knowledge of, 444

learning within the critical period, 451–452

rules, 448

Grapheme-color synesthete, 316

Gray matter, 159

Grossly disorganized behavior, 646–647

Ground and figure. See Figure-ground relationship

SI-5

Group cohesion, emotional contagion as, 549–550

Group decisions, 552

Group differentiation hypothesis, 551

Group discussions, 550–552

Group polarization, 551–552

causes of, 551–552

consequences, 550–551

defined, 550

informational explanations, 551

normative explanations, 551–552

Groupthink, 552

Groupthink (Janis), 552

Habituation, 40

defined, 102

in exposure treatment for fear, 686

infants and, 420

as learning type, 102

Hair cells, 272

Hallucinations, 646

Happiness, facial expression of, 79

Harmful norms, 547–550. See also Helpful norms

Hawthorne effect, 40

Hearing

cochlear implant, 273, 275–276

deafness

conduction, 272–273

sensorineural, 273

pitch perception, 273–276

auditory masking, 275

cochlear implants, 275–276

traveling wave, 273–274

sound

amplitude, 269

analyzing patterns, 277

characteristics, 270

frequency, 269–270

hearing missing. See Phonemic restoration

locating, 276–277

loudness, 269

as physical stimulus, 269–271

pitch, 269

sense, 276–278

Hearing aids, 273

Helpful norms, 547–550. See also Harmful norms

Helping

categories of, 94. See also Altruism; Cooperation

defined, 94

patterns of, 94–96

Helping nature, children, 469–470

Heredity, 64–70. See also Genes

Mendelian pattern of, 63. See also Mendelian inheritance

Heritability

coefficient, 400–401

defined, 400

family studies of, 401–403

Hertz (Hz), 269

Heuristics, and attitude, 532

Histrionic personality disorders, 657

Homeostasis, 196–197. See also Motivation

Homology(ies), cross-species comparisons

as clues to species-typical emotional expressions, 83–85

defined, 82

Homosexuality, 219

Hope, as common factor in psychotherapy, 691

Hormones, 177–179

influences of, on sexuality, 213–215

androgen, 214–215

estrogen, 214

menstrual cycle, 214, 215

progesterone, 214

sexual differentiation of brain, 215–216

testosterone, 213–214

Housework, 497–498

Humanistic perspective on personality, 602–604

Humanistic therapy, 678–680

clients’ as leader in, 678–679

empathy in, 679

person-centered therapy, 678

positive regard in, 679–680

Hunger and eating

classical conditioning of, 111

control of, by sensory stimuli, 208

dieting, 211–212

feedback control of, 206

hormonal control of, 206–208

neural control of, 206–208

sensory-specific satiety, 208

Hyperpolarization, 155

Hypnosis, 362

Hypomania, 643–644

Hypothalamus

central drive systems and, 199–200

hunger and, 206

medial preoptic area, 213

Hypothesis, defined, 31

Identical twins, 62

Identity crisis, adolescence and, 483–484

Illusion

auditory. See Phonemic restoration

visual. See Visual illusion

Illusory conjunctions, 296

Illusory contours, 299–300

Imaginal exposure, 686. See also Exposure treatment

Immature defenses, 601

Immature inhibitory control centers, 486

Implicit association tests, 525–526

Implicit attitude

behavior and, 529

defined, 529

positive, 529

Implicit memory

defined, 341

procedural, 343

varieties of, 343–344

Implicit stereotypes, 525–528

defeating, 527–528

defined, 525

priming and, 525

unconscious discrimination, 526

Impression management

defined, 542

humans as actors and politicians, 543–544

Incentives, 196

Incubation period, 386

Independent variable, defined, 34

Inductive reasoning, 375–379

availability bias, 376–377

concept, 375

confirmation bias, 377–378

predictable-world bias, 378–379

scientific reasoning, 376

Infantile amnesia, 347–348

Infants

attachment, 462–466

care, 466–468

core knowledge, 422–425

object permanence, 424

search abilities, 424–425

selective-looking experiments, 423

as explorer, 420–422

environment control, 420–421

hands and eyes, 421–422

novel objects, 420

social cues, 422

Inferential statistics, 41, 43–45

Inferiority complex, 597

Informational influence, 544

Ingroup favoritism, 568

Inhibitory synapse, 154, 155

Inner ear, 272

Insight problems

defined, 382–383

discovering solution, 384–385

examples of, 383

functional fixedness, 384, 385–386

happiness, 387

mental set and, 383–384

unconscious mental processes, 386–387

Insomnia vs. nonsomnia, 228–229. See also Sleep

Inspection time, 397

Institutional Review Boards (IRBs), 54

Instrumental conditioning. See Operant conditioning

Insufficient-justification effect, 535–536

Insula, 261

Intellectual adaptation tool, 431–433

Intellectual flexibility, 404

Intelligence, 391–409

crystallized, 396–397

defined, 391

family environment and, 403–404

fluid, 395

general, 394–399

as evolutionary adaptation for novelty, 398–399

executive functions, 397–398

mental speed, 397

life experiences and, 404

nature-nurture debate, 399–400

personality and, 404

testing, 391–394

Intentional agents, infants and, 422

Intermediate defenses, 601

Interobserver reliability, 47

Intracellular fluid, 152

Intraparietal sulcus, 276

Introspection, defined, 39

In vivo exposure, 686–687. See also Exposure treatment

IQ (intelligence quotient), 393

black-white difference, 406–407

cultural differences, 404–407

family environment and, 403–404

historical increase in, 407–409

minority status and, 407

validity, 394

within-group heritability coefficients, 405–406

SI-6

Iris, 282

Irreversible mental disorders, 625–626

Junk DNA, 59

Kin selection theory, of altruism, 95–96

Kohlberg’s stages of moral reasoning, 488–489

Laboratory study, defined, 38

Language, 442–448

babbling, 445–446

cooing, 445–446

extending words, 447–448

grammar, 444, 448

hierarchical structure, 443–444

innate language-learning device, 449–450

morphemes, 443

morphology, 444

phonemes, 444

phonology, 444

speech sounds perception, 444–445

syntax, 444

vocabulary development, 446–447

word production, 446

Language-acquisition device, 450

Language-acquisition support system (LASS), 452–453

LASS. See Language-acquisition support system (LASS)

Latent learning, 131

Law of association by contiguity, 9–10

Law of complementarity, 286

Learned expectancy, classical conditioning as, 107–108

Learning

classical conditioning. See Classical conditioning

defined, 101

dopamine in, 203

exploration, 129–131

operant conditioning. See Operant conditioning

play and, 127–129

social learning, 131–135

and species-typical behaviors development, 80

what to eat, 136–139

food-aversion learning, 136–138

food-preference learning, 138

from others, 138–139

rule summary, 139

Learning psychology, defined, 16

Lens, 282–283

Leptin, 207–208

Levels of analysis, 12–20

Life experiences, schizophrenia and, 651

Light adaptation, 284

Light-dark cycle, and sleep, 230–231

Liking, 200–201

endorphin in, 203

wanting vs., 202–203

Locus/loci, genetics, 62

Locus of control over desired effects, 605–606

Long-term memory

consolidation, 355–357

encoding information into, 349–352

elaboration, 350–351

organization, 352

hierarchical organization, 353–354

retrograde amnesia and, 355–356

visualization, 354–355

working memory, 352–355

Long-term potentiation (LTP), 203

Loudness, 269

Love, 494–495

Low-ball technique, 554

LTP. See Long-term potentiation (LTP)

Lust, 217. See also Romantic love

Major depression, 638

Major histocompatibility complex (MHC), 257–258

Manic episodes, 643

Marital success, 495

Materialism, philosophy of, 6–7

Mating patterns, 85–92

classification of, 86. See also specific classes

in humans, 90–92

and parental investment theory, 86–90

Mature defenses, 601

McGurk effect, 314

Mean, 41

Medial preoptic area, 213

Median, 41

Medulla, 169

Meiosis, 61–62

Melatonin, 230

Memory

consolidation

retrieval in, 356

sleep in, 356–357

construction

false memories, 361–364

pre-existing beliefs, 360–361

schemas and scripts, 360–361

control processes, 322, 324–326

long-term, 324

consolidation, 355–357

elaboration, 350–351

encoding information into, 349–352

hierarchical organization, 353–354

organization, 352

retrograde amnesia and, 355–356

visualization, 354–355

working memory, 352–355

network models, 342–343

prospective, 364–365

episodic future thought, 365

as mental time travel, 365

phases in, 364

sensory, 323

short-term store, 323–324

types of, 322

working, 334–336

span, 335–336

verbal, 334–335

Mendelian inheritance

examples of, 64–65

and expression of genetic disorders, 65

patterns, 63

Menstrual cycle, 214, 215

Mental development, 425–437

information-processing perspective, 434–437

Piaget’s theory, 425–430

accommodation, 426

assimilation, 426

children as scientists, 426–427

concrete-operational stage, 429

criticism, 430

formal-operational stage, 429–430

operational schemes, 427

preoperational stage, 428–429

reversible actions, 427

schemes, 426

sensorimotor stage, 428

Vygotsky’s theory, 430–434

child as apprentice, 433–434

intellectual adaptation tool, 431–433

zone of proximal development, 433

Mental disorders

ADHD, 623–625

categorizing and diagnosing, 619–622

causes of, 625–627

perpetuating, 628–629

precipitating, 627–628

predisposing, 627

concept, 618–619

cultural values and, 623–625

culture-bound syndromes, 622–623

dangers in labeling, 621–622

medical students’ disease, 622

problems in identifying, 617–618

reliability question, 619–620

sex differences in, 629–630

validity question, 621

Mental health system

places of treatment, 666

professionals, 665–666

structure of, 665–666

Methylation, DNA, 69

MHC. See Major histocompatibility complex (MHC)

Midbrain, 169

Mind

children’s understanding of, 438–440

defined, 3

Mindfulness-based cognitive therapy, 684–685. See also Cognitive therapy

Mirror neurons, 133, 157–158

Mitosis, 61

Monocular cues for depth, 308–310

motion parallax, 308–309

pictorial cues, 309–310

Monogamy, 86, 88–89, 90–91

Monosodium glutamate (MSG), 260

Monozygotic twins. See Identical twins

Mood, defined, 638

Mood disorders

bipolar disorders, 643–644

depressive disorders, 638–643

Moon illusion, 312–313

The Moral Judgment of the Child (Piaget), 477

Moral reasoning, in adolescence, 488–489

Morphins, analgesic effects, 267

Motion parallax, 308–309

Motivation

central-state theory of drives, 199

classification of drives, 197–198

as common factor in psychotherapy, 691–692

compulsive gambling and, 204–205

defined, 195

drug addiction and, 204

homeostasis in, 196–197

overview, 195–196

principles of, 195–200

regulatory vs. nonregulatory drives, 197, 198

unconscious, 595–596

SI-7

Motor-control hierarchy, 165

Motor system, 166–167

autonomic, 166–167

skeletal, 166–167

MSG. See Monosodium glutamate (MSG)

Mullerian inhibiting substance, 216

Müller-Lyer illusion, 311–312

Multisensory integration, 314–315

“bouba/kiki” effect, 315

development, 315

neuroscience, 314

Mutations, 71–72

Myelination, 154

Myelin sheath, 151

Narcissistic personality disorders, 657–658

Nativism, 10

Naturalistic fallacy, 97

Naturalistic observation, 39–40

Natural selection, 10–12

as basis for functionalism, 11

defined, 70

environmental change and, 72–73

genetic diversity and, 71–72

and species-typical behaviors, 78–85

Negative correlation, 42, 43

Negative symptoms, of schizophrenia, 647

Nervous system

brain. See Brain

central, 148, 149

peripheral. See Peripheral nervous system

spinal cord, 167–168

pattern generators, 168

reflexive behaviors, 168

Network models of memory organization, 342–343

Neurogenesis, 156

Neuroimaging

fMRI, 162–163

PET, 162

Neurons, 148–158

appetite-stimulating, 206

appetite-suppressing, 206

cell body, 150

classes, 149–150

defined, 149

interneurons, 150

mirror, 157–158

motor, 150, 166

neurogenesis, 156

sensory, 149, 165

synaptic transmission in, 154–157

Neuropeptide Y (NPY), 206

Neuroticism-stability (N), 578, 579, 587

Neurotransmitter, 154

Nonregulatory drive, 197. See also Motivation

Non-REM sleep, 223, 226

Normal distribution, 66

Normative influence, 545

NPY. See Neuropeptide Y (NPY)

Nucleus, 159

Obedience

crimes of, 556

defined, 556

Milgram’s experiments, 556–560

critiques of, 560

Obesity. See also Hunger and eating

BMI as measure of, 209

cultural influences on, 209–211

dieting and, 211–212

genetic influences on, 209–211

leptin effect on, 207–208

Object permanence, 424

Object recognition, 300–303

recognition-by-components theory, 301–302

visual agnosia, 302–303

Observational learning. See Social learning

Observational methods, 39–40

Observations. See Facts

Observer-expectancy effects

avoidance, in experiments, 50–51

blind testing and, 51

facilitated communication, 49–50

Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), 636–637

Obsessive-compulsive personality disorders, 658

Occupational self-direction, 496–497

OCD. See Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD)

Offspring, genetic diversity in, 585–586

Olfaction. See Smell

Olfactory bulb, 254–255

One-upmanship hypothesis, 551

Openness to experience-non-openness (O), 578, 579, 587

Operant conditioning

behavior analysis, 124–125

defined, 115

discrimination training in, 122–123

generalization in, 122–123

overjustification effect, 123–124

positive vs. negative punishment in, 121–122

positive vs. negative reinforcement in, 121–122

reinforcement principles in, 119–122

Skinner’s method of studying and describing, 116–118

without awareness, 118

Operational definition, 47–48

defined, 47

Operational schemes, 427

Opponent-process theory

complementarity of afterimages, 289–290

concept of, 289

trichromatic theory vs., 290

Optic nerve, 283–284

Optimism

children, 608–609

pessimism and, 609–610

Orbitofrontal cortex, 255

Ossicles, 271

Other-conscious emotions, 232. See also Emotion(s)

Outer ear, 271

Out-group discrimination, 568

Oval window, 271

Overimitation, 471–472

Overjustification effect, 123–124

Oxytocin, 217

Pain, 264–268

asymbolia for, 266

belief-induced analgesia for, 268

description, 264

emotional and motivational component, 265–266

endorphins and, 267

enhancement mechanism, 267

evolutionary value of, 264

gate-control theory of, 266

modulation of, 266–268

morphins and, 267

neural pathways for, 264–266

opiate drugs and, 267

as psychological experience, 265–266

sensory component of, 265

sensory neurons for, 264–265

stress-induced analgesia for, 267–268

Panic disorder, 634–635

Parallel processing, 295

Paranoid personality disorders, 654

Parasympathetic division, 167

Parental investment theory

defined, 86

mating patterns and, 86–90

Parent management training, 685

Parents/parenting

disciplinary styles of, 35–36

styles, 474–475

Parkinson’s disease, 154

Passive bystander effect, 548–549

Pattern generators, 168

Pattern perception

depth. See Depth perception

feature detection, 293–294

feature-integration theory, 294–296

Gestalt principles, 296–298

illusory contours, 299–300

size. See Size perception

top-down vs. bottom-up processes in, 300

Peptide YY (PYY), 207

Perception. See also Vision; specific perception

defined, 246

Perceptual psychology, defined, 20

Periaqueductal gray

electrical stimulation, 267

endorphins, 267

morphins, 267

opiate drugs, 267

Peripheral feedback theory, of emotion, 236–237

Peripheral nervous system, 148, 149, 165–167

motor portion, 166–167

sensory neurons, 165

Permissive, disciplinary style, 36

Permissive parents, 474

Perpetuating causes, of mental disorders, 628–629

Personality

advantages of diversity in, 585–590

defined, 573

humanistic perspective on, 602–604

overview, 573–574

psychodynamic perspective on, 595–602

social-cognitive theories, 604–613

traits in. See Personality traits

Personality disorders

antisocial, 656

anxious, 658

avoidant, 658

borderline, 656–657

concept, 654

dependent, 658

histrionic, 657

narcissistic, 657–658

obsessive-compulsive, 658

origins of, 659

paranoid, 654

schizoid, 654–656

schizotypal, 656

SI-8

Personality psychology, defined, 20

Personality traits

beliefs viewed as, 604–610

boldness-caution as, in fish, 586–587

changes in, with age, 581–582

continuity and change over time, 580–582

factor analysis, 575–577

family environment, 582–583, 590–591

five-factor model of, 577–580

gender differences in, 591–594

cultural foundations of, 593–594

evolutionary foundations of, 592–593

heritability of, 582

measurement of, 577–579

validity of, 579–580

polygenic inheritance of, 68

in siblings

birth-order effects on, 591

non-shared environment effect on, 590

sibling contrast effect on, 590–591

split-parent identification, 590–591

situation-specific, 610–611

Person-centered therapy, 678. See also Humanistic therapy

Person perception

attractiveness bias in, 507–508

attributions

cross-cultural difference in, 507

logic of, 504–505

person bias in, 505–507

baby-face bias in, 508–509

evolutionary consequences, 509–510

in Internet encounters, 510–511

Pessimism and optimism, 609–610

PET. See Positron emission tomography (PET)

Phantom-limb pain, 266

Phenomenological reality, 602

Phenomenology, 602

Phenotype, genotype vs., 60

Phenylketonuria (PKU), 65

Pheromones, 258–259

Phobias, 632–634

evolution and learning, 633–634

normal fear and, 633

Phonemes, 277. See also Phonemic restoration

Phonemic restoration, 277–278

Phonological loop, 334

Photochemical, 283

Photopic vision. See Cones

Photoreceptors

cones, 283

defined, 281

rhodopsin, 283

rods, 283

Physical stimulus, 246

Physiological response, 246

Physiology, 7–8

Piaget’s theory, mental development, 425–430

accommodation, 426

assimilation, 426

children as scientists, 426–427

concrete-operational stage, 429

criticism, 430

formal-operational stage, 429–430

operational schemes, 427

preoperational stage, 428–429

reversible actions, 427

schemes, 426

sensorimotor stage, 428

Pictorial cues, 309–310

differential lighting of surfaces, 310

familiar objects’ image size, 310

linear perspective, 310

occlusion, 309

position relative to horizon, 310

texture gradient, 310

Pinna, 271

Pitch, 269

Pitch perception, 273–276

auditory masking, 275

cochlear implants, 275–276

traveling wave, 273–274

Placebo(s), 51

effects on anxiety and depression, 670

on pain, 268

Play

age-mixed, 478–479

developmental functions of, 476–479

gender differences in, 482

Groos’s theory, 127–129

learning and, 477–478

paradoxical quality, 478

skill acquisition and, 476–477

Polyandry, 86, 88, 92

Polygenic characteristics, 65–68

defined, 66

Polygyny, 86, 87–88, 90

Pons, 169. See also Brainstem

Ponzo illusion, 311, 312

Positive correlation, 42–43

Positive thinking, 608

Positive vs. negative punishment, 121–122

Positive vs. negative reinforcement, 121–122

Positron emission tomography (PET), 162

Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), 635–636

Postural reflexes, 169

Potassium ions, 152

Precipitating causes, of mental disorders, 627–628

Predictable-world bias, 378–379

Predictive adaptive responses, 211

Predisposing causes, of mental disorders, 627

Prefrontal cortex, 175

emotions and, 240–241

Prefrontal lobotomy, 671–672

Pregnancy, teenage, 491

Prenatal development, 414–417

embryonic phase, 415

fetal phase, 415

teratogen’s potential effect on, 416–417

zygotic phase, 414–415

Prenatal environment, schizophrenia, 650–651

Preoperational stage, 428–429

Preservation and protection theory, of sleep, 224–225

Primary auditory cortex, 276

Primary visual area, 294

Priming, 387

Primitive sensory features, 294–295

Prisoner’s dilemma game

iterative, 564

one-trial, 563–564

Procedural memory, 343

Proceptivity, 215

Projection, 599

Promiscuity, 86, 89–90

Prosocial behavior

children, 469–471

empathy and empathic comforting, 469

help, 469–470

sharing, 470–471

cooperation, 561–562

Prospective memory, 364–365

episodic future thought, 365

as mental time travel, 365

phases in, 364

Proteins

codes for building, genes and, 58–59

structural, 58

Proximate explanations, 74–75

Psychiatric nurses, 666

Psychiatric social workers, 665

Psychiatrists, 665

Psychoanalysis. See Psychodynamic therapy

Psychocentric theory, University, 20–21

Psychodynamic perspective on personality, 595–602

Psychodynamic therapy, 674–677

childhood experiences as central to, 675

clue(s) to unconscious mind in

dreams as, 676–677

free associations as, 676

mistakes in speech and behavior as, 677

resistance as, 677

transference as, 677

insight and cure in, 677

patient’s unconscious mind, 675–676

psychoanalysis as, 674

unconscious conflicts as central to, 675

Psychology

defined, 3, 29

historical overview of, 4–12

as profession, 21–22

scope of, 12–22

The Psychopathology of Everyday Life (Freud), 677

Psychophysics

absolute threshold, 250

concept of, 249–250

difference threshold, 250–251

Fechner’s law, 252–253

stimulus magnitude, 251–253

Weber’s law, 251

Psychosurgery, 671–672

for obsessive-compulsive disorder, 672

prefrontal lobotomy, 671–672

Psychotherapy

common factors in, 690–692

hope, 690

motivation, 691–692

support, 690–691

evidence of effectiveness of, 688–690

PTSD. See Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD)

Puberty, 418–419

Punishment, 121–122

Pupil, 282

PYY. See Peptide YY (PYY)

Qualitative variation, 248

Quantitative variation, 248

Rapid-eye-movement (REM) sleep, 222–223, 226, 227

Rational-emotive therapy, 681

Rationalization, 599

SI-9

Reactance effect, 518

Reaction formation, 599

Rearing, and teenage sexuality, 492–493

Reasoning

analogies for, 371–375

deductive

concept, 380

concrete nature, 380–382

logic, 381–382

inductive, 375–379

availability bias, 376–377

concept, 375

confirmation bias, 377–378

predictable-world bias, 378–379

scientific reasoning, 376

moral, in adolescence, 488–489

scientific, 376

Receptor potentials, 248

Recessive gene, 62–63

Reciprocity norm, 555–556

Reciprocity theory, of altruism, 96

Recognition-by-components theory, 301–302

Red-green color-blind, 288

Reflexes

conditioning, 102–106

defined, 5, 102

habituation and, 102

habituation of, 102

understanding of, 7

Reflexology, 7

Regulatory drive, 197, 198. See also Motivation

Regulatory genes, 59

Reinforcement

continuous, 119

defined, 201

extinction, 119

partial, 119–120

positive vs. negative, 120–122

principles of, 119–122

schedules of, 119–120

shaping, 119

Reliability, 47–48. See also Validity

REM. See Rapid-eye-movement (REM) sleep

Replicability, 47

Repression, 597

Repressive coping, 599–601

Reproductive drives, 198

Research designs, 33–37

correlational studies, 35–37

descriptive studies, 37

experiments, 34–35

Research settings, 33, 38

Research strategies, dimensions of, 33–41. See also Data-collection methods, as research dimension; Research designs; Research settings

Response, defined, 102

Resting potential, 152

Retina

defined, 282

transduction in, 283–284

Reversible actions, 427

Reversible figure, 298

Reward

components of, 199–200

compulsive gambling and, 204–205

drug addiction and, 204

neural mechanisms of, 201–205

Rhinencephalon, 255

Rhodopsin, 283

dark and light adaptation, 285

Right to privacy, 52

Risk factors, for unhappy marriages and divorce, 495, 496

RNA (ribonucleic acid), 59

Rods

cones vs., 284–285

in dark and light adaptation, 284–285

defined, 283

Romantic love, 494–495

sex and, 216–218

Sadness, facial expression of, 79

Safety drives, 198. See also Motivation

Sales pressure, 553–556

Salty taste, 261

Schadenfreude, 568

Schema, 360

Schemes, 426. See also Piaget’s theory, mental development

Schizoid personality disorders, 654–656

Schizophrenia, 645–653

alterations in brain structure, 648

catatonic behavior, 646–647

cross-cultural study, 651–653

delusions, 646

developmental model of, 653

diagnostic characteristics, 645–647

disorganized thought and speech, 645–646

disruptions in brain chemistry, 647–648

early brain traumas, 650–651

genetic and environmental causes, 649–653

grossly disorganized behavior, 646–647

hallucinations, 646

life experiences, 651

negative symptoms, 647

neurological factors, 647–648

prenatal environment, 650–651

Schizotypal personality disorders, 656

Science, defined, 3–4, 29

Scientific reasoning, 376

Scientist concept, 426–427. See also Piaget’s theory, mental development

Scotopic vision. See Rods

Scripts, 360

Search abilities, infants, 424–425

Selective breeding

for behavioral characteristics in animals, 66–67

defined, 66

in nature. See Natural selection

Selective cell death. See Apoptosis

Selective-looking experiments, for infants, 423

Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRI), 669–670

Self-actualization, 603–604

Self-concept, 602

Self-conscious emotions, 232. See also Emotion(s)

Self-control, 518–521

ego depletion, 519–520

free will, 520–521

reactance effect, 518

Self-direction, occupational, 496–497

Self-efficacy, 606–607

Self-perception

big-fish-in-little-pond effect, 516

effect of others’ appraisals on, 512–514

as group member, 522–524

group-enhancing biases, 523–524

social vs. personal identity, 522–523

Pygmalion effect on, 512–513

self-esteem, 514–515

self-inflating biases in, 517–518

self-serving attributional bias, 517

social comparison and, 515–517

Self-report methods, 38–39

Self theory, 602

Semantic memory, 342

in amnesia, 346–348

Sensation, defined, 246

Sensation seekers, 486. See also Adolescence

Sensorimotor stage, 428

Sensorineural deafness, 273

Sensory cross-activation hypothesis, 317

Sensory experience, 246

Sensory-perceptual hierarchy, 165

Sensory processes. See also Hearing; Pain; Psychophysics; Smell; Taste

adaptation in, 249

coding of quality and quantity by, 248

neurons, 247

overview of, 246–249

receptors, 247–248

sensation vs. perception, 246

sensory areas of cerebral cortex, 247–248

Sensory psychology, defined, 20

Sensory-specific satiety, 208

Serial processing, 295

Series problem, 380

Sex and aggression, 596

Sex-attractant pheromones, 259

Sex chromosome, 60

Sex differences. See also Gender differences

in aggression, 93–94

in interactions with caregivers, 479–480

mental disorders, 629–630

Sexual arousal, 112

Sexual attraction, in adolescents, 490

Sexual drive and behavior

arousability vs. proceptivity in, 215

estrous cycle effect, 214–215

hormonal influences on, 213–215

menstrual cycle, 215

testosterone, 213–214

Sexual intercourse, and gender differences, 491–492

Sexual jealousy, 92

cultural influences on, 18

levels of analysis of, 12–20

Sexually transmitted diseases (STD), 490–491

Sexual-minority development, 490

Sexual monogamy, 89

Sexual orientation

after birth effect on, 219–220

experiences and, 219–220

genetic influences on, 218–219

prenatal influences on, 218–219

Sexual reproduction, genes and, 60–61

Shared attention, in infants, 422

Shared identity, 556

Sharing, children and, 470–471

Sickle-cell anemia, 63–64

Situation-specific personality traits, 610–611

SI-10

Size constancy, 310–311

Size perception

depth cues in, 310–313

illusion, 311–313

moon, 312–313

Müller-Lyer, 311–312

Ponzo, 311, 312

size constancy, 310–311

Skeletal muscles, 166

Skepticism, 32

Sleep, 220–231

circadian rhythm of, 230

dreams and, 223–224, 227–228

EEG assessment of, 222

insomnia vs. nonsomnia, 228–229

light-dark cycle and, 230–231

non-REM, 223

REM, 222–223, 226, 227

theories about functions of

body-restoration theory, 225–226

brain-maintenance theory, 226

preservation and protection, 224–225

Sleep-onset insomnia, 230

Sleep thought, 223

Smell, 253–259

anatomy and physiology of, 253–255

as component of flavor, 255

incest avoidance and, 258

mate choice and, 257–258

mother-infant bonding, 257

pheromones and, 258–259

sex and age differences in, 256

transduction and coding in, 253–255

Social cognition, 18

Social-cognitive theories, 604–613. See also Beliefs

Social dilemmas

defined, 562

iterative prisoner’s dilemma game, 564

logic of, 563–565

one-trial prisoner’s dilemma game, 563–564

public-goods games, 564–565

tragedy of the commons, 562–563

Social drives, 198, 596–597

Social learning, 131–135

children, 471–472

cultural transmission, 133–134

defined, 131

gaze following, 134–135

watching skilled performers, 132–133

Social monogamy, 89

Social Pressure, within groups, 550–552

Social psychology

cultural psychology and, 18

defined, 17

Social referencing, 422

Socioemotional selectivity theory, 497

Sodium ions, 152

Sodium-potassium pump, 153

Soluble protein molecules, 152

Somatosensation, 165

Sound

amplitude, 269

analyzing patterns, 277

characteristics, 270

frequency, 269–270

hearing missing. See Phonemic restoration

locating, 276–277

loudness, 269

as physical stimulus, 269–271

pitch, 269

sense, 276–278

Specialized learning abilities, 136–143

critical period, 141

fear-related learning, 140–141

imprinting, 141–142

learning what to eat, 136–139

food-aversion learning, 136–138

food-preference learning, 138

from others, 138–139

rule summary, 139

place-learning abilities, 142–143

Species-typical behaviors

biological preparedness as basis for, 80–81

cross-species comparison of, 82–85

development, role of learning in, 80

human emotional expressions as examples of, 78–80

and natural selection, 78–85

Speech, disorganized, 645–646

Spinal animals, 168

Spinal cord, 167–168

pattern generators, 168

reflexive behaviors, 168

Spinal nerves, 165

Spontaneous recovery, in classical

conditioning, 104

Spontaneous remission effect, 670

SSRI. See Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRI)

Standard deviation, defined, 42

Statistical methods

descriptive statistics, 41–43

inferential statistics, 41

Statistical significance

defined, 44

test, components of, 44–45

STD. See Sexually transmitted diseases (STD)

Stereoscopes, 307–308

Stereotaxic instrument, 163

Stereotypes, 524–528

defined, 524

explicit

defeating, 527–528

defined, 524–525

implicit, 525–528

defeating, 527–528

defined, 525

priming and, 525

unconscious discrimination, 526

Stereotype threat, 407, 542

Stimulation, of specific brain areas, 163–164

Stimulus, defined, 102

Stimulus-response (S-R) vs. stimulus-stimulus (S-S) theory, 106–107

Stress, 627–628

Stress-induced analgesia, 268

Structural proteins, 58

Subject-expectancy effects, 51

Sublimation, 597

Subtractive color mixing, 286. See also Color vision

Superiority complex, 597

Superordinate goals, 570

Support, as common factor in psychotherapy, 690–691

Suprachiasmatic nucleus, 230

Suicide, 627, 638, 644, 656

Surprise, facial expression of, 79

Syllogism, 380

Sympathetic division, 166–167

Synapse, synaptic transmission, 154–157

defined, 154

excitatory, 154, 155

inhibitory, 154, 155

integration of inputs in, 155

Synaptic cleft, 154

Synaptic pruning, 156–157

Synesthesia, 316–317

defined, 316

genetics and, 316–317

types of, 316

Tardive dyskinesia, 668

Taste, 260–263

anatomy and physiology, 260–261

brain areas, 261

evolutionary account, 261–263

receptor cells, 260

sex and age differences, 262–263

toxic substances, 261–262

types, 260

Taste buds, 260

Tectorial membrane, 272

Teenage pregnancy, 491

Temporal-lobe amnesia, 344–346

Teratogens, 416–417

Testosterone

increased secretion, causes and consequences, 214

sexual drive and, 213–214

Tests. See also Experiments

blind, 51

defined, 39

TFT. See Tit-for-Tat (TFT)

Theory

defined, 31

facts and, 32

Theory of mind, 438

Thought, disorganized, 645–646

Tit-for-Tat (TFT), 564

TMS. See Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS)

Tonotopically organized neurons, 276

Top-down control, 299

Tragedy of the commons, 562–563

Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS), 160–161, 163

Traveling waves, 273–275

Trichromatic theory, 286–289. See also Color vision

Tricyclics, 669

Twins

fraternal, 62

identical, 62

Umami, 260. See also Taste

Unconditioned response, 103

Unconditioned stimulus, 103. See also Classical conditioning

Unconscious inference

bottom-up control, 300

defined, 299

illusory contours, 299–300

top-down control, 300

SI-11

Unconscious motivation, 595–596

Universal grammar, 450

Validity. See also Reliability

criterion, 48

face, 48

facilitated communication, testing, 50

Variability

defined, 42

genetic, 71–72

Vasopressin, 217

Vestigial characteristics, 76

Vicarious reinforcement, 471

Violation-of-expectancy experiment, 423

Violence, in humans, 94

Virtual reality exposure, 687

Vision

anatomy and physiology. See Eye

color vision

additive color mixing, 286

law of complementarity, 286

opponent-process theory, 289–290

subtractive color mixing, 286

three-primaries law, 286

trichromatic theory, 286–289

depth. See Depth perception

experience and, 292

of newborns, 291–292

size. See Size perception

Visual agnosia, 302–303, 304

Visual dominance effect, 314

Visual form agnosia, 303

Visual illusion

binocular disparity, 307–308

moon, 312–313

Müller-Lyer, 311–312

Ponzo, 311, 312

size, 311–313

Visual object agnosia, 303

Visual pathways, 303–306

complementary functions, 305–306

“what” pathway, 304–305

“where-and-how” pathway, 304, 305–306

Visuospatial sketchpad, 334

Vital reflexes, 169

Vocabulary development, 446–447

Voluntary minorities, 407

Vomeronasal organ, 258

Vygotsky’s theory, mental development, 430–434

child as apprentice, 433–434

intellectual adaptation tool, 431–433

zone of proximal development, 433

Wanting

defined, 201

dopamine in, 202–203

liking vs., 202–203

Weber’s law, 251

“What” pathway

complementary functions, 305–306

concept, 304

damage effect, 304–305

“Where-and-how” pathway

complementary functions, 305–306

concept, 304

damage effect, 305

White matter, 159

The Wisdom of the Body (Cannon), 196

Within-subject experiments, 34

Working memory, 334–336

span, 335–336

verbal, 334–335

Working-memory span, 397

Young-male syndrome, 487–488. See also Adolescence

Youth, defined, 483

Zone of proximal development, 433

Zygote, 62

Zygotic phase, prenatal development, 414–415

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SI-13

SI-14

SI-15

SI-16

SI-17

SI-18

SI-19

SI-20