SI-1
Note: Page numbers followed by f indicate figures; those followed by t indicate tables.
Abilify, 426–427
abnormal psychology, 396–438. See also mental disorders; therapy
absolute threshold, 97–98, 97f, 103
Abu Ghraib prison, 386–387, 386f
accommodation
in Piaget’s theory, 283
in vision, 107
acetylcholine (ACh)
Alzheimer’s disease and, 46
definition and overview of, 46
Huntington’s chorea and, 63
poisons influencing, 46
summary of functions, 49t
acquisition
in classical conditioning, 147–148, 148f, 151t
of language, 5–6, 279–282, 293–294
in operant conditioning, 159, 160, 161, 161f
acrophobia, 404t
activation-synthesis theory of dreaming, 84–85
actor-observer bias, 380–381, 382t, 389–390
acupuncture, endorphins and, 49
acute schizophrenia, 414–415
adaptation
dark, 111
in Piaget’s theory, 283
sensory, 102
additive color mixtures, 112–113, 112f
Adler’s striving for superiority, 326, 326f, 327
adolescent(s)
approximate age range, 271t
formal operations in, 287–289
identity crisis of, 306
identity vs. role confusion stage and, 305t
adoption studies of intelligence, 260–261
adrenal glands, 55, 55f
adrenalin, 54
adulthood
intelligence changes in, 257, 291–293, 293t
late, 271t, 306
middle, 271t, 306
young, 271t, 306
advertising, classical conditioning and, 147
aerophobia, 404t
afterimages, 112, 113
aggression
in Eysenck’s three-factor personality theory, 338
media violence’s relationship with, 179–180, 182
modeling of, 178–181
aging
intelligence influenced by, 257, 291–293, 293t, 294–295
vision and, 107, 275–277
agonist(s), 46, 47, 48
agoraphobia, 406
agreeableness, in Five Factor Model of personality, 339, 339t
agyrophobia, 404t
Aha! experience, 232
alcohol
effect on the brain, 63
and state-dependent memory, 208
as teratogen, 274
algorithms, 233–234, 238
alternate-form reliability, 255
Alzheimer’s disease
acetylcholine and, 46
glial cells and, 40
ambiguous subjective contours, 126–127, 126f
American Psychiatric Association, DSM-5 and, 398–400
American Psychological Association, 1
American schoolchildren, test score gap vs. Asian schoolchildren, 261
amnesia, 9–10, 64, 199–201
anterograde, 199–201
infantile/child, 201
retrograde, 200
amnesics, 199, 200, 201, 237
amphetamines, 47
amplitude, of waveforms, 105, 105f
amygdala, 61, 62f, 63, 64, 64f, 64t, 65, 65t, 83, 357, 406, 409
anal stage, in Freudian theory, 322–323, 322t
anal-expulsive personality, 323
anal-retentive personality, 323
analytical intelligence, 258
anchoring and adjustment heuristic, 234–235, 238
antagonist(s), 46, 47
anterior temporal lobes, 232–233
anterograde amnesia, 199–201
practice effect and problem solving in, 237
antianxiety drugs, 19, 48, 425, 437
anticonvulsants, 423
antidepressant drugs, 48, 423–425
for major depressive disorder, 411, 422–425
for obsessive-compulsive disorder, 409
antipsychotic drugs, 425–427, 437
anvil (bone), 114, 115f
anxiety
basic, 326
defense mechanisms and, 319–320
GABA and, 48, 407
anxiety disorders
agoraphobia, 406
definition of, 403
drugs treating, 425
generalized, 407
overview of, 403–407, 403t, 404t, 407f
panic disorder, 406–407
social, 405–406
specific phobia, 403–405, 404t
summary of, 418
aphasia, 74–75
appetitive stimulus, 155–156, 155f
arachnophobia, 404
archetypes, Jungian, 325
arousal
emotion and, 56–59
in Eysenck’s three-factor personality theory, 337–338
Yerkes-Dodson law and, 169, 170, 170f
SI-2
arousal theory of motivation, 169, 170, 170f, 170t
Asch conformity studies, 355–357, 355f, 356f
assimilation, in Piaget’s theory, 283
association cortex, 70, 71–77
Astroten study, 369–370
attachment
contact comfort as crucial for, 298–299, 299f
day care influencing, 301
definition of, 298
Harlow’s monkeys and, 298–300, 298f, 299f
insecure-ambivalent, 300
insecure-avoidant, 300
insecure-disorganized, 300
overview of, 298–301, 298f, 299f
parenting styles and, 301–302, 302f, 307
secure, 300–301
summary of, 307
temperament’s importance to, 300–301
attitudes
behavior influencing, 382–389, 384f, 386f, 389f
definition of, 382
Festinger’s cognitive dissonance theory and, 383–384, 385
role-playing influencing, 385–389, 386f, 389f
self-perception theory and, 384–385, 390
in social thinking, 382–389, 384f, 386f, 389f
attribution, 334, 378–382, 382t
actor-observer bias and, 380, 382t
for behavior of others, 379–380
definition of, 378
false consensus effect and, 381
false uniqueness effect and, 381
fundamental attribution error and, 379, 382t
just-world hypothesis and, 379–380
for our own behavior, 379–380, 382t
primacy effect and, 379
self-fulfilling prophecies and, 380
self-serving bias and, 334, 382t
auditory cortex, 67t, 69–71
auditory processing, 116–118, 118t. See also hearing
composite theory and, 117–118, 118t
frequency theory and, 117, 118t
location of primary, 67t, 70, 70t
pitch distinction in, 116–117, 118t
place theory and, 117, 118t
volley principle and, 117
auditory sensory register, 194
authoritarian parenting, 301
authoritative parenting, 301
autism, 181, 303–304, 307
autokinetic effect, 354–355, 355f
automatic processing, 205, 244, 250
autonomic nervous system
definition of, 53
emotions and, 56–60
overview of, 53, 60
parts of, 51f
autonomy vs. shame and doubt, in Erikson’s theory, 305t
availability heuristic, 242–244, 243f, 250
aversive stimulus, 155–156, 155
awareness
classical conditioning without, 158
levels of, 317–318, 317f
operant conditioning without, 157–158
reinforcement without, 157–158
axons, 40, 41, 41f, 42–43, 43f, 44
babbling, 280
Babinski reflex, 274
baby talk, 280
backward conditioning, 143–144
Bandura’s self-system, 332–333
basal ganglia, 62f, 63, 201
basic anxiety, 326
basilar membrane, 115, 115f, 117
BBC Prison Study, 387, 388–389, 389f, 390
Beck’s cognitive therapy, 434, 435, 435f, 438
behavior(s). See also classical conditioning; learning; motivation; operant conditioning; social thinking
attitudes and, 382–389, 384f, 386f, 389f
modification, 157
reinforcers as, 156
self-system influencing, 332–333
behavior modification, 157
behavioral approach to personality, 328–329
behavioral component of emotion, 56–57
behavioral research perspective, 3–4, 5t
behavioral therapy, 432–434, 438
belief perseverance, 246–247
beliefs, false, theory of mind and, 302–303
bell curve, 24, 27–28, 27f, 28f See also normal distribution.
Bem’s self-perception theory, 384–385
benzodiazepines, 425
BFI-10. See Big Five Inventory-10
bias
actor-observer, 380–381, 382t, 389–390
confirmation, 244–247, 247f, 250
hindsight, 6
perceptual, effect of labeling on, 400–401, 402
perceptual set and, 121
self-serving, 334, 380–381, 382t, 390
social desirability, 10
Big Five. See Five Factor Model of personality
Big Five Inventory-10 (BFI-10), 340, 341t
Binet-Simon intelligence test, 251–252, 252f
binocular depth cues, 128–129, 134
biological preparedness
instinctual drift, 175–176, 175f
in learning, 173–176, 175f, 182, 405
taste aversion, 174–175, 182
biological research perspective, 2–3, 5t
biomedical therapies
definition of, 420
drug therapy, 422–427
electroconvulsive therapy, 427–428, 427f, 428f, 437
overview of, 421–429, 429f
psychosurgery, 428–429, 429f, 437
summary of, 437
tranquilizing chair, 421f, 422
transcranial magnetic stimulation, 428
trephining, 421f, 422
biopsychosocial approach, 402
bipolar cells, 106, 106f, 107, 113
bipolar disorder, 412–413, 422–423
SI-3
birth defects, 273–274
bistable perception, 124, 127
black widow spider venom, 46
blind spot(s), 107–108, 108f
blindsight, 109
blood-brain barrier, 47
Bobo doll experiments, 178–179, 178f
bodily-kinesthetic intelligence, 257, 258t, 259t
Botox, 46
bottom-up processing, 120
botulinum poison, 46
brain
at birth, 272, 278
blood supply pumped to, 44
central core of, 61–63, 62f
cerebral cortex of, 66–77, 67f, 68f, 75f
consciousness and, 81–85
delayed conditioning and, 145
emotions, system for, 59–60
gray matter of, 42–43
hemispheric specialization in, 77–81
implicit memory formation in, 201
of infant, 278
insight problems, structures for, 232–233
limbic system of, 63–65, 65t
memory storage capacity of, 196–197
of Einstein, 76–77, 76f
overview of, 39, 61–81
oxygen consumed by, 44
perception influenced by, 95
scans, 44–45
schizophrenia and, 417
sleep/dreaming and, 81–85
speech and language centers of, 74–75, 75t, 79
split, 77–81, 86
structures of, 61–77
theory of mind and, 303
trace conditioning and, 145
white matter of, 42–43
brain damage
aphasia and, 74–75, 75f
personality and, 73–74
brain scans, 44–45
brainwashing, 359
brain waves, sleep stages and, 81–83, 72f
BrdU. See bromodeoxyuridine
breathing reflex, 274
Broca’s aphasia, 75
Broca’s area, 74–75, 75f
bromodeoxyuridine (BrdU), as marker of neurogenesis, 65
bystander effect, 4–5, 373–374
Cannon-Bard theory of emotion, 58, 59f
caregivers, attachment to, 298–302
case studies, 9–10
catatonic schizophrenia, 414
categorization, 242
category, prototypes for, 3
cause-and-effect relationships
correlational research and, 11–16
descriptive research and, 8–11
in experimental research, 16–22, 22t
cell body of neuron, 40, 41, 41f, 42
cell(s)
bipolar, 106, 107, 110, 113
ganglion, 106, 107, 110, 113
glial, 40
nerve. See neurons
central core, 61–63, 62f, 64t
central fissure, 66, 67, 68
central nervous system (CNS), 52–53, 60. See also brain; spinal cord
centration, 286
cerebellum, 62–63, 62f, 64t
delayed conditioning and, 145
implicit memory formation and, 201
trace conditioning and, 145
cerebral cortex
definition of, 66
homunculi for, 68, 68f, 69
of Einstein, 76–77
processing in, 66–77
surface area of, 66
cerebral hemispheres
association cortex of, 70, 71–77
auditory cortex of, 69–71, 115f, 115–116
interaction between, 80–81
joining of, 66
lobes of, 66–67, 67f, 70t
motor cortex of, 67–68, 68f
processing differences between, 79–81
somatosensory cortex of, 68–69
specializations of, 77–81
speech/language areas of, 74–77
visual cortex of, 69–71, 106f, 108–109, 125f, 126
Challenger disaster, 376, 376f
child abuse, false memories of, 220–221
children. See also adolescents; development; infants; newborns; personality development; social development
cognitive development of, 282–289, 283f, 284t, 287f, 294
concrete operational stage of, 284t, 286–288, 287f, 294
conservation understood by, 285–287, 287t
critical period for language, 282
day care and, 301
egocentrism of, 285
formal operational stage of, 284t, 287–289, 294
language development in, 279–282, 293–294
media violence effects on, 179–180
moral development of, 295–298, 297t
observational learning of, 178–179, 178f
overjustification effect influencing, 171
preoperational stage of, 284–286, 284t, 294
reversibility understood by, 286
scaffolding used for, 290–291, 294
sexual abuse of, 220–221, 222
social development in, 298–302
theory of mind for, 302–304, 307
zone of proximal development of, 290–291, 294
chromosomes, 272–273
chronic schizophrenia, 415, 417
chunk, in memory, 195
cingulate gyrus, 429
cingulotomies, 429
classical conditioning
acquisition and, 147, 148f, 151t
conditioned response (CR) in, 142–143, 145f, 151–152
conditioned stimulus (CS) in, 142–145, 145f, 151
counterconditioning and, 433–434, 438
definition of, 141, 145f
delayed conditioning and, 143–145
elements and procedures of, 141–147, 142f, 144f, 145f, 146f
extinction and, 147, 148f, 151t
general learning processes in, 147–151, 148f, 149f, 151t
SI-4
in advertising, 147
in behavioral therapy, 432–434, 438
Little Albert study and, 145–147, 146f, 149–150, 432
overview of, 141–152, 142f, 144f, 145f, 146f, 148f, 149f, 151t
Pavlov’s research on, 4, 141–144, 142f, 144f, 149, 149f, 150, 151
phobias and, 405
spontaneous recovery and, 147–148, 148f, 151–152, 151t
stimulus discrimination and, 149f, 150, 151t
stimulus generalization and, 148–150, 149f, 151t
summary of, 151–152
trace conditioning and, 143–145
unconditioned response (UCR) in, 142, 145f, 151
unconditioned stimulus (UCS) in, 142–145, 145f, 151
without awareness, 158
claustrophobia, 404
cleaning compulsion, 408–409
client-centered therapy, 331, 431–432, 438
clinical psychologists, 420t
clinical social workers, 420t
closure, 125–127, 126f
CNS. See central nervous system
cochlea, 115, 115f, 116, 116f
cognitive component of emotion, 57
cognitive development. See also children; intelligence; thinking
concrete operational stage of, 284t, 286–288, 287f, 294
formal operational stage of, 284t, 287–289, 294
information-processing approach to, 289, 294
Piaget’s stage theory of, 282–289, 283f, 284t, 287f, 294
preoperational stage of, 284–286, 284t, 294
sensorimotor stage of, 284, 284t, 294
Vygotsky’s approach to, 289–291, 290f, 294
cognitive dissonance theory, 383–384, 385, 390
cognitive factors in depression, 334–335, 411–412
cognitive maps, 178
cognitive research perspective, 2–3, 5t
cognitive therapy, 434–435, 434f, 435f, 438
cohort effects, 291–292
collective unconscious, Jungian, 325–326, 327
collectivism, amount of conformity and, 357–358
color vision
composite theory of, 114, 114t, 119
cones involvement in, 109–111, 110t
of infants, 276
opponent-process theory of, 113–114, 113f, 114t, 119
trichromatic theory of, 111–113, 112f, 114, 114t, 118–119
color(s)
additive mixtures of, 111–112, 112f
afterimages and, 112, 113
complementary, 112
subtractive mixtures of, 112, 112f
Columbia disaster, 376
commonsense theory of emotion, 57, 59f
communication, neuronal, 41–45
chemical, 43f, 43–44
electrical, 42–43, 43f
complementary colors, 112
afterimages and, 112, 113
compliance
definition of, 358
door-in-the-face technique for, 358–359, 361–362, 362t, 370
foot-in-the-door technique for, 358–359, 361, 362t, 370
low-ball technique for, 360–361
that’s-not-all technique for, 361–362, 362t
composite theory
of color vision, 114, 114t, 119
of pitch perception, 117–118, 118t, 119
compulsions, 408–409
concrete operational stage, in Piaget’s theory, 284t, 286–288, 287f, 294
conditional probabilities
medical screening test results and, 247–249, 249f, 250
overestimation of, 247–248
computation of, using natural frequencies, 248–249, 249f
conditioned response (CR), 142–143, 145f, 151–152
conditioned stimulus (CS), 142–145, 145f, 151
conditioning. See classical conditioning; operant conditioning
conditions of worth, 331
conduction deafness, 116, 119
cones, (of retina), 109–113, 110f, 110t, 112f, 118–119
confirmation bias, 244–247, 247f, 250
conformity
Asch’s study of, 355–357, 355f, 356f
brain activity and, 357
cultural factors influencing, 357–358
definition of, 354
fMORI technique and, 358
gender factors influencing, 358
Sherif’s study of, 354–355, 355f
situational factors influencing, 357
summary of, 376–377
congenital abnormalities (from teratogens), 273–274
conjunction fallacy, 241, 241f
connectome, 39
conscientiousness, in Five Factor
Model of personality, 338, 339t
conscious mind, in Freud’s theory, 317–318, 317f
consciousness, 81–85
definition of, 81
sleep and, 81–85
conservation, in preoperational stage, 285–287, 287t
contact comfort, 298–299, 299f
contamination obsession, 408–409
contextual effects on perception, 122, 122f
continuous schedules of reinforcement, 163, 167–168
control, locus of, 333–334
control groups, in experiments, 17–20f
conventional level of moral reasoning, 296, 297, 297t, 306
cornea, 106, 106f
corpus callosum, 66, 78
correlation
illusory, 246
near-zero, 12, 14f
negative, 12, 14f
positive, 12, 14f
strength of, 12, 14f
SI-5
correlation coefficient
definition of, 12
strength of, 12
types of, 12
uses in intelligence testing, 251, 255
correlational studies
correlation coefficient and, 12
definition of, 11
overview of, 11–16
scatterplots and, 13, 14f
third-variable problem in, 13, 15–16
corridor illusion, 129–130, 129f
cortical structures. See cerebral cortex; cerebral hemispheres
counseling psychologists, 420
counterconditioning, 432–434, 438
CR. See conditioned response
creative intelligence, 258
critical period, for language, 282
cross-sectional studies, 291–292, 293t, 294
crystallized intelligence, 257, 292, 294
CS. See conditioned stimulus
cue-dependent theory of forgetting, 216–217, 221
cumulative records, for partial-reinforcement schedules, 160–161, 160f, 161f
curare, 46
cynophobia, 404
dark adaptation, 111
data analysis, statistical, inferential, 20–21
day care, attachment and, 301
deafness
conduction, 116
nerve, 116
declarative memory. See explicit memories
defense mechanisms, in Freud’s theory, 319–320, 320t
deindividuation, 374–375, 374f
delayed conditioning, 143–145, 158
delta waves, 82
delusions, 414
demand characteristics, 388
dendrites, 40–41, 41f, 42, 44
denial, in Freud’s theory, 319, 320t
dependent variable(s), 17, 20f, 21–22, 22t
depression
bipolar disorder and, 412–413
cingulotomies treating, 429
cognitive factors in, 334–335, 411–412
drug therapy for, 48, 411–412, 423–425
electroconvulsive therapy for, 427–428, 427f, 428f, 437
gender and, 411
genetic predisposition for, 411–412
learned helplessness and, 334
major depressive disorder, 403t, 410–412
major depressive episode, 410, 413
memory in, 208–209
neurogenesis theory of, 425, 427
overdiagnosis of, 411
pessimistic explanatory style causing, 334–335, 411–412
placebos and, 424–425
psychotherapy for. See psychotherapies
suicide and, 410
transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) for, 428
depressive disorders, 410–412
depth perception, 128–133, 129f, 131f, 132f, 133f, 275
descriptive research methods, 8–11
case studies, 9–10
observational techniques, 8–9
survey research, 10–11
descriptive statistics
correlation coefficient, 12
measures of central tendency, 25
measures of variability, 25–26
summary of, 26t
types of, 24–26
detection question, in psychophysics, 96–100, 97f, 99t, 103, 103t
development. See also cognitive development; personality development; social development
Erikson’s psychosocial stage theory of, 304–306, 304f, 305t, 307
general stages of, 271, 271t
moral, 295–298, 296f, 297t, 306–307
motor, 274–275
nature influencing, 271, 273–274
nurture influencing, 271, 273–274
of infants, 274–279, 275f, 276f
of language, 5–6, 279–282, 293–294
prenatal, 272–274, 278–279
sensory-perceptual, 275–278, 276f, 279
teratogens impairing, 273–274
developmental psychology
adult changes in intelligence and, 291–293, 293t
attachment and, 298–302
complementary nature of multiple research perspectives and, 5–6
definition of, 5, 271
Erikson’s psychosocial stage theory and, 304–306, 304f, 305t, 307
Kohlberg’s moral reasoning stage theory and, 295–298, 296f, 297t, 306–307
language acquisition and, 5–6, 279–282, 293–294
parenting styles and, 301–302, 302f, 307
Piaget’s stage theory and, 282–289, 283f, 284t, 287f, 294
prenatal development and, 272–274, 278–279
theory of mind and, 302–303
Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory and, 289–291, 290f, 294
deviation IQ scores, 253–254, 255f, 262–263
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition (DSM-5), 397–400, 401
difference question, in psychophysics 100–101, 103–104, 103t
difference threshold, 100–101, 103–104
diffusion of responsibility, 372–375
discrimination, stimulus
in classical conditioning, 150–151, 151t
in operant conditioning, 161–163, 163t
discriminative stimulus, in operant conditioning, 161–162
disoriented attachment. See insecure-disorganized attachment
displacement, in Freud’s theory, 319, 320t
dissociative identity disorder, 413
distance cues, in vision, 128–133, 129f, 131f, 132f, 133f
distance perception. See depth perception.
distractor task, 195–196, 196f
distributed study effect. See spacing effect
distributions, frequency, 24, 27–32
normal, 27f, 27–28, 28f, 254, 255f
skewed, 28–32, 29f, 30f
SI-6
dizygotic twins. See fraternal twins
door-in-the-face compliance technique, 358–359, 361–362, 362t, 370
dopamine
antipsychotic drugs and, 425–427
definition and overview of, 46–47
Parkinson’s disease and, 46–47
schizophrenia and, 47, 416
stimulants influencing, 47
summary of functions, 49t
dopamine-serotonin system stabilizer. See Abilify
double-blind procedure, 21–22
dread risk, 243
dream(s), 83–85, 431
activation-synthesis theory of, 84–85
manifest vs. latent content of, 431
neurocognitive theory of, 85
psychoanalytic theory of, 431
drive-reduction theory of motivation, 168–169, 170t
drugs, 48, 423–427
agonistic effects of, 46
antagonistic effects of, 46
antianxiety, 19, 48, 425, 437
anticonvulsant, 423
antidepressant, 48, 423–425, 437
antipsychotic, 47, 48, 416–417, 425–427, 437
neurotransmitters and, 45–49
psychotropic, 422–427
drug therapy, 422–427, 437
DSM-5. See Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition
dual processing model of thinking, 244
dysrationalia, 258–259
ear(s). See also deafness, hearing
operation of, 114–116, 115f, 116f
structure of, 114–115, 115f, 116f
eardrum, 114, 115f, 116
Ebbinghaus’s memory studies, 212–213
echoic memory, 194
ECT. See electroconvulsive therapy
effortful processing, 205, 243–244, 250
ego, in Freudian theory, 317f, 318–321, 320t, 327
egocentrism, in preoperational stage, 285
Einstein’s brain, 76–77, 76f
elaborative rehearsal
actors using, 209
definition of, 206
overview of, 206–207
summary of, 209, 211
elderly people. See also aging
integrity vs. despair stage and, 305t, 305
intelligence in, 257, 291–293
Electra conflict, in Freud’s theory, 323, 327
electrical impulse, 42–43
electroconvulsive therapy (ECT), 427–428, 427f, 428f, 437
electroencephalography (EEG), 81, 82
embryonic development, 273
emotions
amygdala influencing, 65
autonomic nervous system and, 56–60
behavioral component of, 56–57
brain system for, 59–60
cognitive component of, 57
commonsense theory of, 57
components of, 56–57, 60
definition of, 56
overview of, 56–60, 59f
physical component of, 56
theories of, 57–60, 59f
encoding 204–211
acoustic, 205–206
definition of, 204
effortful processing in, 205
elaborative rehearsal for, 206–207, 209, 211
environmental effects on, 207–209
failure theory, 214–215, 214f
improving, 209–211
interference in, 214, 215
levels-of-processing theory in, 205–206
memories, information into, 204–211, 206f
mnemonics improving, 209–210
overview of, 204–211, 206f
specificity principle, 207–208, 211
ways of, 205–211, 206f
endocrine glandular system
definition of, 54
overview of, 54–55, 55f, 60
endorphins, 48–49, 49t
environment
behavior influenced by, 4
development influenced by, 271, 273–274
encoding, effects on, 207–209
heredity vs. experiences in, 259–262, 262f, 273–274, 281–282, 294
intelligence determined by, 259–262, 262f, 263
language acquisition role of, 281–282, 294
nature vs. experiences in, 259–262, 262f, 271, 273–274, 281–282, 294
obedience influenced by, 370–371, 371f
studying influenced by, 207–208
virtual, 369
epinephrine, 54
episodic memory, 197–198, 198f, 204
Erikson’s psychosocial stage theory, 304–306, 304f, 305t, 307
erogenous zone, in Freudian theory, 321, 322t
ESP. See extrasensory perception
“Ethical Principles in the Conduct of Research with Human Participants” (American Psychological Association), 386
Eureka! experience, 232
excoriation disorder, 409–410
experiment(s), 16–22, 17t
control group in, 18
definition of, 17
dependent variables in, 17
designing, 16–22, 20f, 22t
double-blind procedure in, 20
experimental group in, 17
hypotheses in, 16–17, 239, 244–250, 249f
independent variables in, 17
with multiple variables, 21–22
operational definitions in, 18
placebo effect in, 18–19
random assignment in, 16
experimental group, 17–18, 19, 20f
experimental research
controls in, 16–17, 17–22, 20f
design, 17–22, 20f
overview of, 16–22
experimenter expectation, 21
explanatory style(s), 334–335, 411–412
explicit memories, 197–198, 198f, 201, 204, 272
SI-7
external attribution, 334
external locus of control, 333, 334–335
extinction
in classical conditioning, 147–148, 148f, 151t
in operant conditioning, 160–161, 161f, 163t, 167–168
extrasensory perception (ESP), 98
extraversion, 325, 326, 339t
in Jungian personality theory, 325, 326
in Five Factor Model of personality, 338–339, 339t
in Eysenck’s three-factor personality theory, 337–338
extraversion-introversion trait, 337–338
extrinsic motivation, 169–172
extrinsic reinforcement, 169–172
extrinsic reinforcers, 170
eye(s). See also vision
accommodation and, 107
blind spots of, 108, 108f
in brain, 3
cones of, 109–113, 110f, 110t, 112f, 118–119
cornea of, 106, 106f
fovea of, 110–111
iris of, 106–107, 106f
lens of, 106f, 107
light perception and, 105–107
operation of, 106–111, 106f, 108f, 110t
pupil of, 106–107, 106f
retina of, 106, 106f, 107–113, 108f, 110f, 110t, 112f
rods of, 118
eyewitness testimony, 220–221, 222
Eysenck’s three-factor theory of personality, 337–338
facial perception, 71–72, 276–277, 276f
factor analysis, 257, 336
fallacies
conjunction, 241
gambler’s, 241
false belief understanding, in theory of mind, 302–303, 307
false consensus effect, 381
false memories, 219–221, 220f, 222
false positives, in medical screening tests, 247–250, 247f, 249f, 399
false uniqueness effect, 381
farsightedness, 107
FAS. See fetal alcohol syndrome
fathers, parenting style of, 301–302
fear-of-fear hypothesis, 407
fears. See also anxiety disorders
attachment and, 299
behavior therapy for, 392–394
biologically predisposed, 405
conditioning of, 145–147, 405
example, 57–58, 59f
extinguishing, 405
learning, 145–147, 146f, 149–150, 432
unlearning, 432–434
in specific phobias, 403t, 403–405
feature detectors, 108–109
females. See also mother(s)
depression in, 411
lack of bias against, in intelligence and standardized testing, 256
moral reasoning in, 297–298
Festinger’s cognitive dissonance theory, 383–384, 385, 390
fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS), 274, 278–279
fetal development, 273
fetus, 273, 274
FFA. See fusiform face area
fight-or-flight system, 51f, 53, 55, 56
figure-and-ground principle, 123–125, 123f, 124f, 125f
first-letter mnemonic technique, 210
fissure of Rolando, 66
Five Factor Model of personality, 338–340, 339t, 345
fixation
in problem solving, 230–231
in Freud’s theory, 321–323, 327
fixed-interval schedules, 165–166, 166f, 167t
fixed-ratio schedules, 163–165, 165f, 167t
flat affect, in schizophrenia, 414
flooding, 434
fluid intelligence, 257, 292, 294
Flynn effect, 261–262, 263
fMORI technique, 358
fMRI. See functional magnetic resonance imaging
foot-in-the-door compliance technique, 358–359, 361, 362t, 366, 370
forgetting
cue-dependent theory of, 216, 217t
curve, for long-term memory, 213, 213f
encoding failure theory of, 214–215, 214f, 217t
interference theory of, 215–216, 216f, 217t
in long-term memory, 190f, 213–217, 214f, 216f, 217t
in sensory memory, 190f, 191
in short-term memory, 190f, 194–196, 196f
storage decay theory of, 215, 217t
summary of, 221
formal operational stage, in Piaget’s theory, 284t, 287–289, 294
four-card selection task, 245–246
fovea, 106f, 110–111
fraternal (dizygotic) twins, 260, 273
free association, 430
free recall task, 202–203, 202f, 204
free-floating anxiety. See generalized anxiety disorder
frequencies
natural, 248–249, 249f
of waveforms, 105
frequency distribution(s)
definition of, 24
left-skewed, 29–30, 29f, 32
long tail phenomenon in, 30–32, 30f
normal, 27–28, 27f, 28f
overview of, 27–32, 27f, 28f, 29f, 30f
right-skewed, 28–29, 29f, 30f, 31, 32
skewed, 28–32, 29f, 30f
frequency theory of pitch perception, 117–118, 118t, 119
Freudian theory, 316, 317–325, 317f, 320t, 322t, 327
defense mechanisms in, 319–321, 322t, 324
dreams in, 84–85, 431
ego in, 319
iceberg model of mind in, 317f, 317–318
id in, 318
levels of awareness in, 317f, 317–318, 324
personality structure in, 317–321, 322t
psychosexual stages and, 321–324, 322t
superego in, 319
frontal cortex, 232, 409
SI-8
frontal lobes, 66–68, 72–73, 75, 86, 232–233, 409
Broca’s area in, 75
functions of, 73–74
motor cortex of, 67–68
frontal lobotomy, 428–429
full-report procedure, 192–193, 192f
functional fixedness, 231
functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), 45, 69, 357
fundamental attribution error, 379, 382t
fusiform face area (FFA), 71–72
g factor (general intelligence), 256–257
GABA. See gamma-aminobutyric acid
Gage, Phineas, 72–74, 237
gambler’s fallacy, 241–242
gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA), 48, 49t, 63, 407, 425
gamophobia, 404t
ganglion cells, 106, 106f, 107, 110, 113
Gardner’s multiple intelligences, 257, 258t
gender, 358, 366, 411
general intelligence (g factor), 256–257
generalization
in classical conditioning, 150–151, 151t
in operant conditioning, 161–163, 163t
generalized anxiety disorder, 407
generativity vs. stagnation stage, in Erikson’s theory, 305t, 306
genetic factors. See also heritability; nature vs. nurture debate; twin studies
in bipolar disorder, 413
in depression, 411
in intelligence, 260–262
in schizophrenia, 415
genetic similarity studies, 260
genital stage, in Freudian theory, 322t, 324
Genovese, Kitty, 4–5, 353, 373, 374
bystander intervention and, 373–374
gephyrophobia, 404t
germinal stage, 273
Gestalt psychologists, 122–127, 123f, 124f, 125f, 126f, 134
glial cells, 40
global processing, 79–81
glutamate, 48, 49t, 416–417
grasping reflex, 274
gray matter, 42–43
group polarization, 375
group(s)
bystander effect caused by, 373–374
compliance and, 358
conformity and, 355–358
deindividuation and, 372–375
diffusion of responsibility in, 372–375
experiments on, 373–374
groupthink and, 375–376
perception changed by, 357
polarization, 375
social facilitation provided by, 371–372
social influence, 371–376, 376f, 377–378
social loafing in, 372–373
groupthink, 375–376
habituation, 275
hair cells, 115–116, 115f, 116f, 119
hair-pulling disorder. See trichotillomania
hallucinations, 414
hammer (bone), 114, 115f
hearing
auditory processing and, 116–118, 118t
conduction deafness and, 116
mechanics of, 114–116, 115f
nerve deafness and, 116, 119
in newborn, 277
of pitch, 116–118, 118t
helplessness, learned, 334–335
hemispheric specialization, 77–79, 78f
herd mentality, 370
heredity
development influenced by, 271, 273–274
environmental experiences vs., 259–262, 262f, 273–274, 281–282, 294
intelligence determined by, 259–262, 262f, 263
language acquisition role of, 281–282, 294
nurture vs., 259–262, 262f, 271, 273–274, 281–282, 294
heritability, 260
heuristic(s)
algorithm vs., 234
anchoring and adjustment, 234–235, 238
availability, 242–244, 243f, 250
definition of, 233–234
means-end analysis, 236–237, 238
overview of, 234–237
reasons for relying on, 243–244
representativeness, 239–242, 240f, 241f, 250
summary of, 238
working backward, 236, 238
hierarchy of needs, 329–331, 329f, 335
hindsight bias, 6
hippocampus, 10, 62f, 63, 64–65, 64f, 65t, 199, 201, 204, 272, 425
hoarding disorder, 409
holophrase, 280
homunculi, 67–68, 68f, 69
hormones, 54
Horney’s need for security theory, 326–327
humanistic theories of personality, 342t
emphasis of, 315
hierarchy of needs and, 329–331, 329f, 335
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, 329–331, 329f, 335
overview of, 328, 329–332, 329f, 331f, 332f
Rogers’s self theory, 331–332, 332f
summary of, 335
Huntington’s chorea, 63
hypothalamus, 54–55, 55f, 63–64, 64f, 65t
hypothesis testing
confirmation bias and, 244–247, 247f, 250
in medical situations, 239, 247–250, 247f, 249f
overview of, 239, 244–250, 247f, 249f
summary of, 250
iceberg model of mind, in Freudian theory, 317–318, 317f, 324, 327
iconic memory, 190
capacity of, 193
definition of, 191
duration of, 191, 192–194
SI-9
Sperling’s full-report procedure and, 192–193, 192f
Sperling’s partial-report procedure and, 192, 192f, 193
temporal integration procedure and, 191–192, 191f
id, in Freudian theory, 317f, 318, 320–324, 322t, 327
identical (monozygotic) twins, 260, 273
identification, in Freudian theory, 323
identity crisis, 306
identity vs. role confusion, in
Erikson’s theory, 305
I-knew-it-all-along phenomenon (hindsight bias), 6
ill-defined problems, 229, 238
illusions, 128–133, 129f, 131f, 133f, 134, 276–277, 276f, 376, 377
illusory correlations, 246, 250
imagination inflation, 219
implicit memory, 198–199, 198f, 201, 204
classical conditioning and, 198f
priming and, 198–199, 198f
procedural memory and, 198–199, 198f
impression formation, 242
anchoring and adjustment heuristic and, 235
primacy effect and, 379
incentive theory of motivation, 169, 170t
incus (bone), 114, 115f
independent variable(s), 17, 20f, 21–22, 22t
individualism, amount of conformity and, 357–358
industry vs. inferiority stage, in Erikson’s theory, 305t
infantile/child amnesia, 201
infant(s). See also attachment; newborns
brain development in, 278, 279
cognitive abilities of, 278
language development in, 277–278, 279, 280, 281
motor development of, 274–275
object permanence lacked by, 284, 288
security need of, 326–327
sensorimotor stage of, 284, 284t, 294
sensory-perceptual development of, 275–278, 276f, 279
temperament of, 300–301
Thatcherization and, 276–277, 276f
theory of mind and, 302
trust vs. mistrust stage in, 305t
inferential statistical analyses, 20–21
inferiority complex, 326
influenza, and schizophrenia, 415
information-processing approach to cognitive development, 289, 294
informational social influence, 354–355, 355f
initiative vs. guilt stage, in Erikson’s theory, 305t
insecure-ambivalent attachment, 300
insecure-avoidant attachment, 300
insecure-disorganized attachment, 300
insight
in problem solving, 232–233
in psychoanalysis, 430–431
instinctual drift, 175–176, 175f, 182
integrity vs. despair stage, in Erikson’s theory, 305t
intelligence quotient (IQ), 252–254, 255f, 262–263
intelligence(s)
of adopted children, 260
age decline in, 291–293, 293t, 294–295
controversies about, 256–262, 258t, 259t, 262f
crystallized, 257, 292, 294
definition of, 251, 257–259, 258t
fluid, 257, 292, 294
Gardner’s multiple, 257, 258t
general, 256–257
nature determining, 259–262, 262f, 263
nurture determining, 259–262, 262f, 263
specific, 256–257
tests, 251–256, 251f, 252f, 254f, 255f, 262–263
theories of, 256–259, 258t, 259t, 263
triarchic theory of, 258
intelligence test(s)
Binet-Simon scale, 252
deviation IQ scores and, 253–254, 253f
Flynn effect observed for, 261–262, 263
g factor in, 256–257
history of, 251–253
intelligent quotients (IQs), 252
lack of bias against women and minorities, 256, 263
reliability and validity for, 254–256
s factors in, 257
standardization of, 254f, 253–254
Stanford-Binet, 252–253, 252f, 254, 255, 262
Wechsler, 253–254
interference theory, for forgetting, 215–216, 216f, 221
internal attribution, 334
internal locus of control, 333–334
interneurons, 52
interpersonal intelligence, 258t, 259t
interposition, 128
interval partial-reinforcement schedules, 165–166, 166f, 167, 167t
intimacy vs. isolation, in Erikson’s theory, 305t
intrapersonal intelligence, 258t, 259t
intrinsic motivation, 169–172
intrinsic reinforcers, 170
introversion
in Eysenck’s three-factor personality theory, 337–338
in Jungian personality theory, 325, 326
IQ. See intelligence quotient
iris, 106–107, 106f
James-Lange theory of emotion, 57, 59f
jnd. See just noticeable difference
Jonestown massacre, 353–354, 370–371, 371f
Jungian personality theory, 325, 326
just noticeable difference (jnd), 100–101
just-world hypothesis, 379
ketamine, 416
knee-jerk reflex, 52
Kohlberg’s stage theory of moral reasoning, 295–298, 296f, 297t, 306–307
labeling, 400–401
language. See also speech and language centers of brain
acquisition, 5–6, 277–278, 279–282, 293–294
SI-10
centers in brain, 74–75, 74f, 79
complementary nature of multiple research perspectives and, 5–6
critical period for, 282
nature’s role in acquiring, 281–282, 294
nurture’s role in acquiring, 281–282, 294
split-brain patients and, 78–79
late adulthood, 271t, 306
latency stage, in Freudian theory, 322t, 324
latent content, of dreams, 431
latent learning, 176–177, 177f, 182
lateral fissure, 66–67, 67f
law of effect, 153
L-dopa, 47
Leaning Tower illusion, 132–133, 133f
learned helplessness, 334–335
learning
aversions and, 174–175
biological and cognitive aspects of, 173–182, 175f, 176f, 177f, 178f
biological preparedness in, 173–176, 175f, 182, 405
classical conditioning and. See classical conditioning
instinctual drift and, 176–177
latent, 176–177, 177f, 182
motivation in, 168–172
observational (social), 178–181, 178f, 182, 332–333
operant conditioning and. See operant conditioning
specific phobias and, 405
left hemisphere, 77–80, 78f
left visual field, 77, 78, 78f
left-skewed distributions, 29–30, 29f
lens, 106f, 107
levels-of-processing theory, 205–206, 206f
light waves
additive mixtures of, 111–112, 112f
amplitude of, 105f
perception of, 106f, 104–114. See also color vision; vision
subtractive mixtures of, 112, 112f
wavelength of, 105f, 105–107
limbic system, 63–65, 64f, 65t
linear perspective, 128, 129–132, 129f, 131f, 132f, 133
linguistic intelligence, 257, 258t
lithium, 422–423
Little Albert study, 145–147, 146f, 149–150, 432
loafing, social, 372
lobotomy, 428–429, 429f, 437
local processing, 79–81
loci, method of, 209–210
locus of control, 333–335
logical-mathematical intelligence, 257, 258t
long tail phenomenon, 30–32, 30f
longitudinal studies, 291, 292–293, 293t, 294
long-term memory (LTM)
amnesia influencing, 199–201
definition of, 196
forgetting curve for, 213, 213f
overview of, 196–203, 197t, 198f, 202f
STM as distinct from, 201–203, 202f, 204
summary of, 204
types of, 197–199, 198f
low birth weight, 274, 279
low-ball compliance technique, 360–361
LTM. See long-term memory
magnetic resonance imaging, functional (fMRI), 45, 69, 71, 181, 203, 357, 369
maintenance rehearsal, 196, 206
major depressive disorder, 398–399, 410–412, 419
major depressive episode, 410
manic episode, 412–413
manic-depressive disorder. See bipolar disorder
manifest content, 431
MAO inhibitors. See monoamine oxidase inhibitors
males. See also fathers; testosterone
depression in, 411
malleus (bone), 114, 115f
maps, cognitive, 178
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, 329–331, 329f, 335
maze, latent-learning research with, 176–177, 177f, 182
McGurk effect, 70–71
mean, 25, 30, 31
distortion of, 25, 30–31
in normal distribution, 27–28, 27f, 28f
in skewed distribution, 28–29, 29f
means-end analysis heuristic, 236–237, 238
measures of central tendency, 25
measures of variability, 25–26
media
depiction of mental disorders in, 401
violence in, 179–180, 182
median, 25, 30–31
in normal distribution, 27–28
in skewed distribution, 28–29, 29f
medical hypotheses, testing, 239, 247–250, 247f, 249f. See also conditional probabilities
medical school syndrome, 402
medulla, 61–62, 62f, 64t
memory. See also encoding; iconic memory; retrieval; three-stage model of memory
acoustic processing in, 206, 206f
brain’s storage capacity for, 196–197
chunking in, 195
distractor task and, 195, 196f
Ebbinghaus’s studies of, 212–213, 213f
echoic, 194
elaborative rehearsal, 206–209, 210
emotion and, 208, 211
encoding information into. See encoding.
episodic, 197–198, 198f, 204
explicit (declarative), 197–198, 198f, 201, 204, 272
false, 219–221, 220f, 222
forgetting and. See amnesia; forgetting
free recall task and, 201–202
full-report procedure and, 192–193, 192f
hippocampus and, 10, 64, 199, 201, 204
iconic, 190–194
implicit (nondeclarative), 198–199, 198f, 201, 204
levels-of-processing theory, 205–207, 206f
long-term, 190f, 196–203
maintenance rehearsal, 196
memory span task, 194–195
mood-dependent, 208, 211
organization of, 189–190, 190f, 198f
SI-11
partial-report procedure and, 192, 192f, 193
physical processing in, 205–206
primacy effect in, 202
priming in, 198–199, 198f
procedural, 198, 198f, 204
recovered, 221
repressed, 220–221, 222, 324
retrieving information from. See retrieval.
schemas and, 218
self-reference effect, 207, 209
semantic, 197–198, 198f, 204
semantic processing in, 205–206, 206f
sensory, 190–194, 190f, 191f, 192f, 193f, 203
short-term, 190f, 194–196, 196f
state-dependent, 208, 211
storage in, 196–197, 201, 204–211
temporal integration procedure, 191–192
three-stage model, 189–204, 190f
memory loss. See amnesia; forgetting
memory span, 194–195
memory span task, 194–195
mental ability theories of intelligence, 257–259
mental age, 252, 253
mental disorders
anxiety, 403–407, 403t, 404t, 407f, 418, 425
biopsychosocial approach to, 402
bipolar, 412–413, 422–423
causes of, 402
depressive, 398–399, 410–412, 419
diagnosis and classification of, 397–402
dissociative identity, 413
false positives in diagnosis of, 398–399
major categories of, 402–419, 403t, 404t, 407f
major depressive, 398–399, 410–412, 419
in media, 401
multiple personality, 413
obsessive-compulsive, 407–409, 418–419, 429
obsessive-compulsive related, 407–408, 409–410
perceptual bias of labeling and, 400–401
personality, 417–418, 419
psychotic, 413, 425–427
schizophrenia, 47, 400, 413–417
six major categories of, 402–419, 403t
spontaneous remission of, 435–436, 436f
summary of, 418–419
symptoms of, 402
treatment of. See biomedical therapies; psychotherapies
mental health professionals, 420, 420t
mental set, 231–232
meta-analysis, 22, 435–436, 436f, 438
method of loci, 209–210, 211
middle adulthood, 276t, 305t, 306
Milgram obedience studies, 362–369, 364f, 364t, 367f, 368t, 377, 379
mind
Freud’s iceberg model of, 317–318, 317f, 324, 325–326, 327
theory of, in development, 302–304, 307
mindware gap, 258–259
Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI), 340, 342–343, 345–346
Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory-2 (MMPI-2), 340, 342, 343, 345–346
mirror neurons
autism and, 181, 303–304
definition and overview of, 180–181
imagination inflation effect and, 219–220
observational learning and, 180–181, 307
theory of mind and, 303–304
mirror-tracing task, 200
misinformation effect, 220–221, 220f
MMPI. See Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory
MMPI-2. See Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory-2
mnemonics, 209–210, 211
mode, 25, 26t
in normal distribution, 27–28
in skewed distribution, 28–29, 29f
modeling. See observational learning; social learning
monoamine oxidase (MAO) inhibitors, 423
monocular depth cues, 128–129, 130, 134
monozygotic twins. See identical twins
mood-congruence effect, 208–209, 211
mood-dependent memory, 208, 211
moon illusion, 132, 132f
moral development, 295–298, 296f, 297t, 306–307
moral reasoning, 295–298, 296f, 297t, 306–307
morphine, 49
mother(s)
attachment to, 298–302
parenting style of, 301–302
working, 301
motivation. See also humanistic theories
arousal theory of, 169, 170t
definition of, 168
drive-reduction theory of, 168–169, 170t
extrinsic, 169–172
incentive theory of, 169, 170t
intrinsic, 169–172
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, 329–331
overjustification effect and, 170–171, 172–173
reinforcement and, 169–172
self-actualization as, 335
summary of, 172
motor cortex, 67–68, 68f
motor development, 274–275
motor homunculus, 68f
motor nerves, 52
motor neurons, 52
motor reflexes. See reflexes
Müller-Lyer illusion, 130–131, 131f
multiple personality (dissociative identity) disorder, 413
musical intelligence, 257, 258t
myelin sheath, 42
Myers-Briggs Type Indicator, 326
NASA, groupthink and, 376
natural frequencies, in calculating conditional probabilities, 248–249, 249f, 250
naturalist intelligence, 257, 258t
naturalistic observation, 8
nature vs. nurture debate
development and, 271, 273–274
intelligence and, 259–262, 262f, 263
language acquisition and, 281–282, 294
Navon hierarchical figures, 80, 80f
SI-12
near-zero correlation, 13, 14f
nearsightedness, 107
Necker cube, 126–127, 126f
needs, 329–331, 329f
Maslow’s hierarchy of, 329–331
Horney’s security, 326–327
for sleep, 83–84
negative correlation, 12, 14f
negative punishment, 154–156, 155f
negative reinforcement, 154–156, 155f
negatively skewed distribution, 29–30
neo-Freudian theories, 316, 325–327, 325f
NEO-PI-R, 340, 341t
nerve deafness, 116, 119
nervous system
autonomic, 51f, 56–60
central, 51, 51f, 52–53
neurons in, 52
overview of, 51–53, 51f
parasympathetic, 51f, 53
parts of, 51, 51f
peripheral, 51, 51f, 53
somatic (skeletal), 51f, 53
subdivisions of, 51
sympathetic, 51f, 53
neurocognitive theory of dreaming, 85
neurogenesis, 64–65, 425
BrdU as marker of, 65
cognitive psychotherapies and, 425
electroconvulsive therapy and, 427
placebo effect and, 425
selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors and, 427
neurogenesis theory of depression, 425, 427
neurons
communication between, 41–45, 43f
electrical impulse of, 42–43
glial cells and, 40
glutamate killing of, 48
interneurons, 52
mirror, 180–181, 219–220, 303–304, 307
motor, 52
neurotransmitters and, 43–44, 43f
number of, 39
postnatal development of, 278
sensory, 52
structure of, 40–41, 41f
neuroticism, in personality trait theories, 337, 338, 339t
neurotransmitter(s)
acetylcholine, 46, 49t, 63
definition of, 44
in depression, 411, 413
dopamine, 46–47, 49t, 416, 425–427
drugs and, 45–49
endorphins, 48–49, 49t
GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid), 48, 49t, 63, 407, 425
glutamate, 48, 49t, 416–417
in generalized anxiety disorder, 407
hormones vs., 54
norepinephrine, 45, 47–48, 49t, 54, 406, 411, 423, 427
in obsessive-compulsive disorder, 409
poisons and, 45–49
in schizophrenia, 415–417
serotonin, 45, 47–48, 49t, 54, 409, 411, 423, 425, 426, 427
summary of, 49t
newborns. See infants
nine-circle problems, 230–231, 233
nocebo effect, 19
nondeclarative memory. See implicit memory
nonsense syllables, 212–213, 213f
norepinephrine, 47–48, 49t, 54
normal distributions, 27–28, 27f, 28f
normative social influence, 355–357, 355f, 356f
obedience
Astroten study on, 369–370
Burger’s study on, 367–369
gender differences in, 366
Jonestown massacre and, 370–371
Milgram’s studies on, 362–369, 364f, 364t, 367f, 368t, 377, 379
virtual environment study on, 369
object movement, 278
object permanence, 284, 288
observation inflation effect, 219–220
observational learning, 178–181, 178f, 182
observational research techniques, 8–9
obsessions, 408–409
obsessive-compulsive disorder
cingulotomies treating, 429
overview of, 407–409
SSRIs treating, 409
summary of, 418–419
treatments for, 409, 429
obsessive-compulsive related disorders, 407–408, 409–410
occipital lobe, 67, 67f
Oedipus conflict, in Freudian theory, 323, 327
openness, in Five Factor Model of personality, 338–339, 339t
operant conditioning
acquisition in, 160, 161, 161f, 163t
behavioral therapies using, 434
cumulative record in, 160–161, 160f, 161f
definition of, 4, 141, 152
extinction in, 160–161, 161f, 163t
motivation and, 168–172
partial-reinforcement schedules in, 163–168, 165f, 166f, 167t
punishment in, 153–158, 155f
reinforcement in, 153–158, 155f
shaping in, 159–160
spontaneous recovery in, 161, 161f, 163t
stimulus discrimination in, 161–162, 163t
stimulus generalization in, 162, 163t
summary of, 172–173
without awareness, 157–158
operant conditioning chambers, 159–162, 159f, 160f, 161f
operational definition, 18
ophidiophobia, 404t
opponent-process theory of color vision, 113–114, 113f, 114t, 119
optic nerve, 78f, 106f, 107, 108
oral stage, in Freudian theory, 322, 322t
organizational perceptual ambiguities, 122–125, 123f, 124f, 125f
ornithophobia, 404t
oval window, 115, 115f, 117
ovaries, 55, 55f
overextension, 280
overjustification effect, 170–173
overlearning, 211
pancreas, 55, 55f
panic disorder, 406–407
paranormal, 239
parasympathetic nervous system, 53, 54t
parentese. See baby talk
parenting styles, 301–302, 302f, 307
parietal lobe, 67, 67f, 68, 70t, 76, 77
SI-13
Parkinson’s disease, 46–47, 63
glial cells and, 40
L-dopa and, 47
partial-reinforcement effect, 163
partial-reinforcement schedules
extinction for, 167–168
fixed-interval, 165–166, 166f, 167t
fixed-ratio, 163–165, 165f, 167t
summary of, 172
variable-interval, 166, 167t
variable-ratio, 163–165, 165f, 167t
partial-report procedure, 192, 192f, 193
participant observation, 9
pattern recognition, 108–109
bottom-up processing, 120–121
contextual effect, 122, 122f
perceptual set in, 121
top-down processing, 120–122
Pavlovian conditioning. See classical conditioning
PCP. See phencyclidine
peak experiences, 330
peg-word system, 210, 211
Peoples Temple, 353–354, 370–371, 371f
percentile rank, 28
perception. See also hearing; vision
absolue threshold in, 97–98, 97f, 103, 103t
bistable, 124
bottom-up processing and, 120
of color, 109–111, 113f, 114t, 276
contextual effects on 122, 122f
definition of, 119–120
of depth, 128–133, 129f, 131f, 132f, 133f, 275
difference question in, 96, 100–101, 103–104, 103t
difference threshold in, 100, 103, 103t
extrasensory, 98
in Gestalt psychology, 122–128
illusions in, 95, 95f, 122–128
perceptual constancy and, 127–128
perceptual organization and, 122–128
perceptual set influencing, 121
of pitch, 105, 116–118
scaling question and, 96, 101–102, 103t
of self, 334–335, 384–385
sensory adaptation and, 102
sensory-perceptual development in infancy and, 275–278
signal detection theory, 98–100
of sound, 96, 100, 114–118, See also hearing
Stevens’s power law and, 101–102, 103t
subjective nature of, 95, 95f, 128–133, 129f, 131f, 132f, 133f
subliminal, 98
top-down processing and, 120–122, 121f, 122f
visual. See vision
Weber’s law and, 100–101, 103, 103t
perceptual ambiguity, 124–125, 124f, 125f
perceptual constancy, 122, 127–128, 134
perceptual organization, 128
closure in, 125–127, 126f
figure-and-ground principle for, 123–125, 123f, 124f, 125f
overview of, 122–127, 123f, 124f, 125f, 126f, 134
subjective contours in, 125–127, 126f
perceptual set, 121
peripheral nervous system (PNS)
autonomic, 51f, 56–60
overview of, 53, 60
parts of, 51f
somatic (skeletal), 51f, 53
permissive parents, 301
person-who reasoning, 246–247
personality, 314–346. See also humanistic theories; psychoanalytic theories; social-cognitive theories; trait theories; traits
anal-expulsive, 323
anal-retentive, 323
assessment, 336, 340–345
behavioral approach to, 328
collective unconscious and, 325–326
defense mechanisms influencing, 320–321
definition of, 315
disorders, 417–418, 419
extraverted, 337–338
Freudian theory of, 316, 317–325, 317f, 320t, 322t
frontal lobes and, 73–74
humanistic approach to, 329–332
introverted, 337–338
neo-Freudian theories of, 316, 325–327, 325f
phrenology theory of, 315
social-cognitive approach to, 332–335
split personality (dissociative identity) disorder, 413
trait theories of, 336–340
personality development. See also humanistic theories; psychoanalytic theories; social-cognitive theories; trait theories
Erikson’s psychosocial stage theory of, 304–306, 304f, 305t, 307
Freudian theory of, 316, 317–325, 317f, 320t, 322t
neo-Freudian theories of, 316, 325–327, 325f
personality inventories, 340, 342, 343, 345–346
personality disorders, 417–418
dissociative identity disorder, 413
personality tests
Big Five Inventory-10 (BFI-10), 340, 341t
Five Factor Model inventories, 340
MMPI, 340, 342–343
MMPI-2, 340, 342, 343
personality inventory, 340, 342, 343, 345–346
projective, 343–345, 344f, 345f, 346
Rorschach Inkblot, 344–345, 344f
summary of, 345–346
Thematic Apperception Test (TAT), 345
personality theories
Adlerian, 326, 326f, 327
behavioral, 328–329
Five Factor Model, 338–339, 339t
Freudian. See Freudian theory
of Horney, 326–327
humanistic, 329–332
Jungian, 325, 326
of Maslow, 329–331
neo-Freudian, 316, 325–327, 325f
phrenology and, 315
psychoanalytic, 316, 317–325, 317f, 320t, 322t, 327
of Rogers, 331–332, 332f
social-cognitive, 332–335
three-factor, of Eysenck, 337–338
trait, 315–316, 336–340, 342t
personality traits, 315, 321, 322, 336–345
person-centered therapy. See client-centered therapy
SI-14
person-who reasoning, 246–247, 250
pessimistic explanatory style, 334–335, 411–412
PET scans. See positron emission tomography scans
phallic stage, in Freudian theory, 322t, 323
phencyclidine (PCP), 416
phobia(s), 403–406, 404t
agoraphobia, 403, 406
behavioral therapy for, 433–434
social (social anxiety disorder), 405–406
specific, 403–404, 404t
phonemes, 277–278, 279
phrenology theory of personality, 315
physical component of emotion, 53
physical world
infants’ understanding of, 278
relationship to psychological world, 96–103
Piaget’s theory of cognitive development
accommodation in, 283
assimilation in, 283
concrete operational stage of, 284t, 286–288, 287f, 294
evaluation of, 288–289
formal operational stage of, 284t, 287–289, 294
preoperational stage in, 284–286, 284t, 294
schemas in, 283–284
sensorimotor stage in, 284, 284t, 294
summary of, 294
pinna (bone), 114, 115f
pitch perception
composite theory of, 117–118, 118t
frequency theory of, 117–118, 118t, 119
place theory of, 117–118, 118t, 119
pituitary gland, 54–55, 55f
place theory of pitch perception, 117–118, 118t, 119
placebo, 18–19, 424
placebo effects, 18–19, 21, 49, 424–425
placebo groups, 19, 20f
pleasure principle, in Freudian theory, 318
PNS. See peripheral nervous system
poisons
acetylcholine and, 46
agonististic effects of, 46
antagonistic effects of, 46
botulinum, 46
neurotransmitters and, 45–49
pons, 61–62, 64t, 84
Ponzo illusion, 129–130, 129f
population, in a research study, 10–11
positive correlation, 12–13, 13f, 14t
positive punishment, 154–156, 155f
positive reinforcement, 154–156, 155f
positively skewed distributions, 28–29, 29f, 30f, 31–32
positron emission tomography (PET) scans, 44–45
postconventional level of moral reasoning, 296, 297, 297t, 306–307
practical intelligence, 258
preconscious mind, in Freudian theory, 317, 317f, 318
preconventional level of moral reasoning, 296, 297, 297t, 306
predispositions
fears and, 146, 173–174
schizophrenia and, 415–416
preferential-looking technique, 275
prefrontal lobotomy, 428–429
Premack principle, 156
prenatal development, 272–274, 278–279
preoperational stage, in Piaget’s theory, 284–286, 284t, 294
primacy effect,
impression formation and, 379–380
in memory, 202–203, 202f, 204
primary auditory area, 67f, 70, 115f, 116
primary mental abilities, 257–258, 259t
primary motor area, 67f, 73, 77
primary reinforcers, 157
primary somatosensory area, 67f, 68–69
primary visual area, 67f, 69–70
priming, 198–199, 198f
prison experiments, 385–389, 386f, 389f, 390
proactive interference, in forgetting, 215, 216f, 221
probability, 238–250
availability heuristic and, 242–244
of cancer, 247–250, 247f, 249f
conditional, 239, 247–249, 249f, 250
conjunction fallacy, 241
definition of, 238
estimating, 238–239
gambler’s fallacy, 241
judging, 238–244, 240f, 241f, 243f, 250
long-run, 242
overview of, 238–244, 240f, 241f, 243f
range of, 238
representativeness heuristic and, 240–242
problem solving. See also solution strategies
algorithms in, 233–233
of amnesics, 237
anterior temporal lobes influencing, 232–233
blocks to, 230–233, 238
fixation in, 230–231
frontal cortex hindering, 232
frontal lobes influencing, 232–233
functional fixedness limiting, 231
of insight problems, 232–233
mental set in, 231–232
practice improving, 237
right anterior temporal lobe improving, 232–233
solution strategies and, 233–237
problems
ill-defined, 229, 238
well-defined, 229, 238
procedural memories, 198, 198f, 204
processing
automatic, 205, 244, 250
effortful, 205, 250
levels of, 205–207, 206f
System 1, 243–244, 250, 258–259
System 2, 244, 250
projective tests, 343–345, 344f, 345f, 346
projection, in Freud’s theory, 320t
prosopagnosia, 72
prototypes, for category, 3
pseudopatients, 9, 400–401
psychiatrists, 420t
psychoanalysis, 316, 331, 429–431, 437–438
psychoanalytic theories of personality, 342t
Freudian, 316, 317–325, 317f, 320t, 322t, 327
neo-Freudian, 316, 325–327, 325f
psychodynamic theories of personality, 316
psychodynamic therapy, 431
SI-15
psychological world, relationship to physical world, 96–103
psychology, 1
psychophysics, 96–104
absolute threshold and, 97f, 97–98, 103, 103t
detection question and, 96–100, 97f, 99t, 103, 103t
difference question and, 96, 100–101, 103–104, 103t
scaling question and, 101–103, 103t
signal detection and, 98–100, 99t
Stevens’s power law and, 101–102, 103t
Weber’s law and, 100–101, 103, 103t
psychosexual stages, in Freudian theory, 321–324, 322t, 327
psychosocial stages, in Erikson’s theory, 304–306, 304f, 305t, 307
psychosurgery, 428–429, 429f, 437
psychotherapies
behavioral, 432–434
client-centered, 331, 431–432, 438
definition of, 420
effectiveness of, 435–436, 436f, 438
overview of, 420–421, 429–436, 434f, 435f, 436f
psychoanalysis, 429–431
rational-emotive, 434–435
schizophrenia treated by, 436
summary of, 437–438
psychotic disorders, 413, 425–427. See also schizophrenia
drug therapy for, 425–426
psychoticism-impulse control trait, in Eysenck’s three-factor personality theory, 337, 338
psychotropic drugs, 422–427
punishers, 153–154
punishment, 153–158, 155f
negative, 155–156
positive, 155
pupil, 106–107, 106f
pyrophobia, 404t
random assignment, 16–17, 17t
random sampling, 11, 16–17, 17t
range, 25–26
rapid eye movement (REM) sleep, 82–83, 84–85, 86
rational-emotive therapy, 434–435, 434f, 438
rational thought and action (Stanovich), 258, 259t
rationalization, in Freud’s theory, 320t
reaction formation, in Freud’s theory, 320t
reaction range, 260–261, 263
reality principle, in Freudian theory, 319
reasoning
moral, 295–298, 296f, 297t, 306–307
person-who, 246–247
recall, 212
recency effect, in memory, 202–203, 202f, 204
receptors for neurotransmitters, 43f, 44
reciprocity principle, 360, 361, 362t
recognition, 212
recovered memory, 221, 324
reflex(es)
Babinski, 274
breathing, 274
in classical conditioning, 142
grasping, 274
knee-jerk, 52
of newborn, 274–275, 279
rooting, 274–275
spinal, 52
sucking, 274–275
registers, sensory, 190–194, 191f, 192f, 193f, 203
regression, in Freud’s theory, 320t
rehearsal
elaborative, 206–207, 209, 211
maintenance, 196, 206
reinforcement
definition, 154
extrinsic and intrinsic, 169–172
language acquisition accounted for by, 5–6
motivation and, 168–172
negative, 154–156, 155f
in operant conditioning, 153–158, 155f
positive, 154–156, 155f
primary and secondary, 157
relative nature of, 156
schedules of, 163–168
without awareness, 157–158
reinforcement schedule(s)
continuous, 163, 167–168
fixed-interval, 165–166, 166f, 167t
fixed-ratio, 163–165, 165f, 167t
partial, 163–168, 165f, 166f, 167t
variable-interval, 166, 166f, 167t
variable-ratio, 163–165, 165f, 167t
reinforcers, 153–154, 156–157, 170
extrinsic and intrinsic, 169–172
primary and secondary, 157
viewed as behaviors, 156
relearning, 212–213, 213f
reliability, in testing, 254–255, 256, 263
REM sleep. See rapid eye movement sleep
remission (spontaneous), 435–436, 436f
representativeness heuristic, 239–242, 240f, 241f, 250
repressed memories, 220–221, 222, 324
repression, in Freud’s theory, 320, 320t, 324
research analysis, 23–30
descriptive statistics and, 24–26, 26t
frequency distributions and, 24, 27f, 27–32
meta-analysis and, 22, 435–436, 436f, 438
research methods
case study, 9–10
correlational, 11–16
cross-sectional, 291–292, 293t
descriptive, 8–11
experimental, 16–22
longitudinal, 292–293, 293t
observational, 8–9
survey research, 10–11
research perspectives, 1–7, 5t
as complementary, 1
external factors emphasized by, 3–6
internal factors emphasized by, 2–3
resistance, in psychoanalysis, 430
responsibility, diffusion of, 372
reticular formation, 62, 62f
retina, 106, 106f, 107–113, 108f, 110f, 110t, 112f
bipolar cells of, 106f, 107–111
blind spot in, 106f, 109–111
fovea of, 106f, 109–111
ganglion cells of, 106f, 107–111
rods and cones of, 106f, 109–111, 110t
in visual processing, 105–111
retinal disparity, 128
retrieval
definition of, 205
environmental factors in, 207–209
failure of, 213–218, 214f, 216f, 217t
SI-16
false memories influencing, 219–221, 220f
imagination inflation influencing, 219
measuring, 212–213, 213f
misinformation effect influencing, 220–221, 220f
mood and, 208, 211
observation inflation effect influencing, 219–220
reasons for forgetting and, 213–217, 214f, 216f, 217t
recall in, 212
recognition in, 212
reconstructive nature of, 218–221, 220f
relearning in, 212, 213
with schemas, 218
source misattribution influencing, 218–219
retroactive interference, in forgetting, 215, 216f, 221
retrograde amnesia, 199–200
reversible figures, 123–125, 123f, 124f, 125f
reversibility, in Piaget’s theory, 286
right anterior temporal lobe, 232–233
right hemisphere, 77–80, 78f
right visual field, 77, 78, 78f
right-skewed distributions, 28–29, 29f, 30f, 31–32
rods (in retina), 109–111, 110f, 110t, 118
Rogers’s self theory, 331–332, 332f
role-playing, 385–389, 386f, 389f
rooting reflex, 274–275
Rorschach Inkblot Test, 344–345, 344f
Rotter’s locus of control, 333–335
runner’s high, 48–49
s factors (specific intellectual abilities), 256–257
sample, for a research study
definition of, 11
random, 11, 16
in survey research, 11
savings method (relearning), 212–213, 213f
scaffolding, 290–291, 294
scaling question, in psychophysics, 101–102, 103t, 104
scatterplots, 13, 14f
Schachter-Singer two-factor theory of emotion, 58–59, 59f
schemas (schemes in Piaget’s theory), 218, 222, 283
schizophrenia
acute, 414–415
antipsychotic drugs treating, 425–427
brain abnormalities in, 417
causes of, 415–417
chronic, 414–415
definition of, 414
dopamine and, 47, 416
drugs for, 416–417, 425–427
glutamate dysfunction contributing to, 416–417
L-dopa’s side effects resembling, 47
lobotomies treating, 428–429, 429f, 437
as psychotic disorder, 413
symptoms of, 413–415
Type I, 415
Type II, 415
vulnerability-stress model of, 417
Seattle Longitudinal Study, 292–293
secondary reinforcers, 157
secure attachment, 300–301
security needs, 326–327
attachment and, 300–301
personality and, 326
selective serotonin and norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors (SSNRIs)
definition of, 48
effects of, 423–424
examples of, 48
selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs)
anxiety disorders treated with, 425
definition of, 48
for depression, 48, 423
effects of, 423–424
examples of, 48
neurogenesis caused by, 425
obsessive-compulsive disorder treated with, 409
self-actualization, 329f, 330–331, 335, 431–432
self-efficacy, 333, 335
self-esteem
depression’s negative correlation with, 15
protecting, 334
self-serving bias protecting, 334, 380–381, 382t, 390
self-fulfilling prophecy, 379, 380
self-perception
attribution maintaining, 334
explanatory style influencing, 334–335
pessimistic explanatory style influencing, 334–335
theory, 384–385, 390
self-reference effect, 207
self-serving bias, 334, 380–381, 382t, 390
self-system (Bandura), 332–333, 335
self-testing, 211
self theory (Rogers), 331–332, 332f
semantic memory, 197–198, 198f, 204
sensation. See also hearing, perception, psychophysics, vision
bottom-up processing and, 120
definition of, 119–120
in infancy, 277, 278
overview of, 95–96
sensorimotor stage, in Piaget’s theory, 284, 284t, 294
sensory adaptation, 102
sensory memory (SM), 190–194, 190f, 191f, 192f, 193f, 203
duration and capacity of, 190–191
Sperling’s full- and partial-report procedures, 192–193
temporal integration procedure and, 191f, 191–192
sensory neurons, 52
sensory registers, 190–194, 191f, 192f, 193f, 203
sensory-perceptual development, in infancy, 275–278, 276f, 279
seriation, 286
serotonin, 45, 47–48, 49t, 54, 409, 411, 423, 425, 426, 427
in depression, 409
in obsessive-compulsive disorder, 409
sex chromosomes, 273
sexual abuse, 220–221, 222
shaping, in operant conditioning, 159–160
Sherif’s conformity studies, 354–355, 355f
shock therapy. See electroconvulsive therapy
short-term memory (STM)
capacity of, 194–195
definition of, 194
duration of, 194, 195–196, 196f
SI-17
LTM as distinct from, 201–203, 202f, 204
recency effect in, 202–203
in three-stage model of memory, 190f, 194–196, 196f
signal detection theory, 99–100, 99t, 103
simultaneous conditioning, 143–144
skeletal nervous system. See somatic nervous system
skewed distributions, 28–32, 29f, 30f
Skinner boxes. See operant chambers
skin-picking disorder. See excoriation disorder
sleep
brain and, 81–85
deprivation, 83–84
dreams and, 83–85
five stages of, 81–83, 82f, 83f
need for, 83–84
reasons for, 83–85
REM, 82–83, 84–85, 86
slow-wave, 82
stages of, 81–83, 82f, 83f
sleep deprivation, 84
sleep spindles, 82
slow-wave sleep, 82
SM. See sensory memory
smell sense in infants, 278
smiling
emotions and, 56–57, 414
infants and, 280
social anxiety disorder, 403t, 405–406
social desirability bias, 10
social development
attachment and, 298–302
day care influencing, 301
Erikson’s psychosocial stage theory of, 304–306, 304f, 305t, 307
parenting styles and, 301–302
summary of, 307
temperament and, 300–301
theory of mind and, 302–304
social facilitation, 371–372
social identity theory, 389
social influence
compliance, 358–362, 362t, 370, 377
conformity, 354–358, 355f, 356f, 376–377
of groups, 371–376, 374f, 376f, 377–378
informational, 354–355, 355f
normative, 355–357, 355f, 356f
obedience, 362–371, 362f, 364f, 364t, 367f, 368t, 371f, 377
social loafing, 372–373
social psychology
attitudes and, 382–389
attribution and, 379–382, 382t
compliance and, 358–362
conformity and, 354–358
definition of, 353
group influence and, 371–376
obedience and, 362–371
social thinking
attitudes in, 382–389, 384f, 386f, 389f
attribution in, 378–382, 382t
social workers, 420t
social-cognitive theories of personality, 342t
Bandura’s self-system in, 332–333
Rotter’s locus of control in, 333–335
self-perception in, 334–335
sociocultural research perspective, 4–5, 5t
solution strategies
algorithms, 233–234, 238
heuristics, 234–237, 238
somatic nervous system, 53
somatosensory cortex, 68–69, 68f
somatosensory homunculus, 68f
sound. See also hearing
loudness of, 105
pitch perception of, 95, 105–106, 106t
processing of, 114–115
sound waves, 104–105, 105f
frequency of, 105, 105f
pitch and, 105, 105f, 116–118, 118t
source misattribution, 218–219
spatial intelligence, 258t, 259t
spacing effect, 210–211
SPE. See Stanford Prison Experiment
specific intelligence (s factors), 256–257
specific phobias, 403–405, 404t
speech and language
brain and, 70, 71, 74–75
development of, 279–282, 293–294
hemispheric specialization and, 78–79
in infancy, 277–278, 279, 280
in schizophrenia, 414
telegraphic speech and, 281, 284
speech and language centers of brain, 70, 71, 74–75
in deaf people, 75
in split-brain patients, 78–79
Sperling’s full-report procedure, 192–193, 192f
Sperling’s partial-report procedure, 192, 192f, 193
spinal cord, 52
spinal reflex, 52
split-brain research, 77–81, 86
spontaneous recovery
in classical conditioning, 147–148, 148f, 151–152, 151t
in operant conditioning, 161, 161f
spontaneous remission, 435–436, 436f
SSNRIs. See selective serotonin and norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors
SSRIs. See selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors
standard deviation, 26, 254, 255f
standardization, in testing, 253–254
Stanford Prison Experiment (SPE), 385–389, 386f, 389f, 390
Stanford-Binet intelligence test, 252–253, 252f, 254, 255, 262
stapes (bone), 114–115, 115f
state-dependent memory, 208, 211
statistical significance, 20–21
statistics
central tendency measures, 24
correlational, 11–12, 251
descriptive, 24–26, 26t
frequency distributions and, 24, 27f, 27–32
inferential, 20–21
meta-analysis and, 22
variability measures, 25–26, 26t
Stevens’s power law, 101–102, 103t, 104
stimuli
appetitive, 155–156, 155f
aversive, 155–156, 155f
in classical conditioning, 142–145, 145f, 151
conditioned, 142–145, 145f, 151
discriminative, 161–162
Navon hierarchical, 80
psychophysicists researching perception of, 95–104
subliminal, 98
unconditioned, 142–145, 145f, 151
stimulus discrimination
in classical conditioning, 149f, 150, 151t
in operant conditioning, 161–162, 163t
SI-18
stimulus generalization
in classical conditioning, 148–150, 149f, 151t, 162
in operant conditioning, 162, 163t
stirrup (bone), 114, 115f
STM. See short-term memory
storage decay theory of forgetting, 215, 221
strange situation procedure, 299–300, 307
striving for superiority, 326, 326f, 327
stroboscopic movement, 122–123
studying
distributed, 210–211
environment influencing, 207–208
interval schedules influencing, 165–166, 166f
overjustification effect influencing, 171
spacing effect influencing, 210–211
subjective contours, 125–127, 126f
sublimation, in Freud’s theory, 320t
subliminal perception, 98
subliminal stimuli, 98
subtractive color mixtures, 112, 112f
sucking reflex, 274–275
suicide, 353–354, 370–371, 371f, 409
superego, in Freudian theory, 317f, 319, 320, 321, 327
superiority complex, 326
survey research, 10–11
Sylvian fissure, 66
symbolic thought, 284–285
sympathetic nervous system, 53, 54t
synaptic gap (synapse), 43f, 44
synesthesia, 71
System 1 processing, in thinking, 244, 250, 258
System 2 processing, in thinking, 244, 250
systematic desensitization, 433–434
T. gondii. See Toxoplasma gondii
talk therapy, 420–421. See also psychotherapies
tardive dyskinesia, 426
taste aversion, 174–175, 182
TAT. See Thematic Apperception Test
telegraphic speech, 281
temperament, 300–301
temporal integration procedure, 191–192, 191f
temporal lobe, 67, 69, 70t, 71
Wernicke’s area and, 75, 75f
teratogens, 273–274
testes, 55, 55f
testimony, eyewitness, 220–221
testing, during studying, 211
testosterone, 54
thalamus, 62f, 63, 64t
in hearing, 115f, 116
in vision, 108, 113
thanatophobia, 404
Thatcherization, 276–277, 276f
that’s-not-all compliance technique, 361–362, 362t
Thematic Apperception Test (TAT), 345
theory of mind, 302–304, 307
therapy. See also biomedical therapies; psychotherapies
Beck’s cognitive, 435, 438
behavioral, 432–434, 438
client-centered, 331, 431–432, 438
cognitive, 434–435, 434f, 435f, 438
drug, 422–427
electroconvulsive, 427–428, 427f, 428f, 437
psychoanalysis, 316, 331, 429–431, 437–438
psychodynamic, 431
rational-emotive, 434–435, 434f, 438
virtual reality, 433–434
thinking
abstract, 284t, 287–288, 292
categorization and, 242
cognitive development and, 289–291, 290f, 294
definition of, 229
dual processing model of, 244
egocentric, 285–286
emotion and, 57
fast, intuitive (System 1), 244
hypothesis testing and, 244–250
intelligence and, 258–259
intelligent, 251–263, 251f, 252f, 254f, 255f, 258t, 259t, 262f
during life span, 279–295, 283f, 284t, 287f, 290f, 293t
outside the box, 233
in problem solving. See problem solving
rational thinking and action and, 258, 259t
in schizophrenia, 414
slow, analytical (System 2), 244
social, 378–389
symbolic, 284, 284t
under uncertainty, 238–250, 240f, 241f, 243f, 247f, 249f
third-variable problem, 13, 15–16
three-part personality structure, in
Freudian theory, 318–321, 320t
three-stage model of memory
capacity in, 197t
duration in, 197t
flow chart of, 190f
long-term memory in, 196–203, 197t, 198f, 202f
overview of, 189–190, 190f
sensory memory in, 190–194, 191f, 192f, 193f
short-term memory in, 194–196, 196f
summary of, 203–204
threshold
absolute, 97–98, 97f, 103
difference, 100–101, 103–104
thyroid gland, 55, 55f
tip-of-the-tongue (TOT) phenomenon, 216–217
TMS. See transcranial magnetic stimulation
toilet training, 322–323
token economies, 157, 434
top-down processing, 120–122, 121f, 122f
TOT phenomenon. See tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon
Tower of Hanoi problem, 236–237
toxins. See poisons.
Toxoplasma gondii (T. gondii), schizophrenia and, 416
trace conditioning, 143–145
trait theories of personality, 342t
Eysenck’s three-factor theory, 337–338
Five Factor Model, 338–340, 339t, 345
overview of, 336–340, 339t
summary of, 345
tranquilizers, 48
tranquilizing chair, 421f, 422
transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS), 428, 428f
transduction, 105–106
transference, in psychoanalysis, 431
transitivity, 286
transorbital lobotomy, 429, 429f
trephining, 421f, 422
triarchic theory of intelligence, 258
trichotillomania, 410
SI-19
trichromatic theory of color vision, 111–113, 112f, 114, 114t, 118–119
tricyclics, 423
trust vs. mistrust stage, in Erikson’s theory, 305, 305t
Turning the Tables illusion, 95, 95f, 131–132
twins
fraternal (dizygotic), 260, 273
identical (monozygotic), 260, 273
twin studies
of bipolar disorder, 413
of depression, 411
of intelligence, 260–262
of schizophrenia, 415
2-4-6 task, 244–245, 246
Type I schizophrenia, 415
Type II schizophrenia, 415
UCR. See unconditioned response
UCS. See unconditioned stimulus
uncertainty
judging, 238–244, 240f, 241f, 243f
thinking under, 238–250, 240f, 241f, 243f, 247f, 249f
unconditional positive regard, 331–332
unconditioned response (UCR), 142, 145f, 151
unconditioned stimulus (UCS), 142–145, 145f, 151
unconscious, 84, 317, 317f, 318, 324, 325–326, 327
collective, in Jungian theory, 325–326
in Freudian theory, 317–319, 320, 324
underextension, 280–281
uninvolved parenting, 301
validity, in testing, 255–256, 263
variable-interval schedules, 166, 166f, 167t
variable-ratio schedules, 164–165, 165f, 167t
variability, measures of, 25–26, 26t
variable(s)
definition, 11
dependent, 17, 20f, 21–22
independent, 17, 20f, 21–22
operational definition of, 18
venom, black widow spider, 46
violence
children viewing, 179
in media, 179–180, 182
viral hypothesis of schizophrenia, 415–416
virtual reality therapy, 433–434
vision. See also color vision; visual processing
accommodation and, 107
dark adaptation in, 111
depth perception and, 128–133, 129f, 131f, 132f, 133f, 275
farsightedness and, 107
feature detectors and, 108–109
of infants, 278, 279
light waves and, 105f, 105–107
loss of, dreams and, 83
nearsightedness and, 107
of newborns, 275
pattern recognition and, 108–109, 120–122, 122f
retina and. See retina
summary of, 118–119
visual acuity, 110, 275
visual aversions, 175
visual cortex, 69–71, 106f, 108–109, 125f, 126
visual fields, 77–79, 78f
visual loss, dreams and, 83
visual processing. See also vision
binocular vs. monocular cues in, 128–129
illusions in, 129–133, 129f, 131f, 132f, 133f
retina and, 128–133, 132f, 133
visual sensory register. See iconic memory
vocabulary, of infants, 280–281
volley principle, in hearing, 117
vulnerability-stress model of schizophrenia, 417
Vygotsky’s theory of cognitive development, 289–291, 290f, 294
WAIS. See Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale
wavelength, 104–105, 105f
wave(s)
amplitude of, 105, 105f
brain, sleep stages and, 81–83, 82f
delta, 82, 82f
frequency of, 105, 105f
light, 105–107, 105f, 118
sound, 104–105, 105f, 118
transduction and, 105
Weber’s law, 100–101, 103t
Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS), 253–254, 254f, 255f, 262–263
Wechsler Bellevue Scale, 253
Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC), 253, 254, 254f, 255, 262–263
well-defined problems, 229, 238
Wernicke’s aphasia, 75
Wernicke’s area, 75, 75f
white matter, 42–43
WISC. See Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children
word salad, in schizophrenia, 414
working backward heuristic, 236, 238
working memory. See short-term memory
working mothers, attachment and, 301
X chromosome, 273
xenophobia, 404t
Y chromosome, 273
Yerkes-Dodson law, 169, 170f
young adulthood, 271t, 305t, 306
zone of proximal development, 290–291, 294
zoophobia, 404t
zygote, 272, 273
SI-20