Chapter 5. Communication for Academic Success

Chapter 5: Communication for Academic Success

• Describe proper communication skills in and out of class
• Understand how to develop a successful presentation
• Know how to properly deliver a presentation

Chapter Overview

This chapter describes how to become a competent communicator inside and outside of the classroom. Effective communication involves not only what is said, but how it is said. During class you might have to participate in a class discussion or give a presentation individually or as part of a group. This chapter will provide you with information on how to communicate with your professors and how to prepare for speech presentations.

Communication Inside the Classroom

College professors vary in their teaching styles. Some prefer to lecture the entire class time, while others prefer a combination of lecture and student interactions such as group activities or interactive discussions. Knowing how to effectively communicate in these environments will make the transition to the university classroom much easier.

Communicating in the college classroom goes beyond raising one’s hand to ask or answer a question. Effective classroom communication involves being an active participant and respecting one’s professors and peers. Dallimore, Hertenstein, and Platt (2008) argue that students who speak up and engage in classroom discussions experience an improvement in their oral and written communication skills. Their research also found that students’ comfort with classroom participation is connected to preparation (i.e., reading the assigned material before coming to class) and regularity of participation. Participating in discussions and group activities can be a challenge for students who are apprehensive about speaking up in the classroom, but it can become easier through proper preparation and practice.

Effective communication in classroom discussions is more about quality than quantity. If the professor asks a discussion question, he or she expects you to contribute. Similarly, if the professor assigns a group activity, all students are expected to participate. Share in discussions by providing thoughtful, constructive, and succinct input and responses. Also, if you have a question about the lecture or assigned reading, ask, when appropriate, during class. If your comment or question does not pertain to the topic of discussion, save it for after or outside of class.

Nonverbal Communication

Nonverbal communication can be powerful. When you see a student slouching in his chair or laying her head on her desk, what does that communicate? It is a sign of disrespect and apathy to fellow students and to the professor. Sit up straight, make eye contact with the professor, and take notes; this communicates interest in the course. In some contexts, nonverbal communication communicates more powerfully than verbal communication (Patterson, 2010). And there are other examples of poor nonverbal communication: missing class, arriving late to class, texting during class, and misuse of computers in class.

If you miss class, some professors consider it a common courtesy for you to send an email explaining your absence. If you are late to class, you may want to approach the professor after class and apologize and offer a brief explanation. In either case, do not ask the professor, “What did I miss?” Ask a classmate or, if available, post your question to the course online discussion board.

For many college professors, texting is one of the most disruptive behaviors in the classroom. Although you use it to communicate with friends or family, texting during class sends a different message to your professors. Professors spend time outside of class to prepare lesson plans, and their job is to present those lessons in class. Texting while the professor is lecturing communicates a message of disrespect. Many students argue that they can text during class and still perform well in the class. However, texting in class is a distraction to the student doing the texting, the students sitting around that student, and the professor. Rosen, Lim, Carrier, and Cheever (2011) examined the impact of text messaging in class and student information retention. They found that the students that received and sent 16 or more texts in a half-hour period earned scores at least one letter grade lower than students who received no or fewer than seven text messages.

Similarly, if you prefer to take notes on your laptop, netbook, or tablet, confirm that it is okay to do so in each class. First, check the syllabus for policies regarding electronics in the classroom. If this is not specifically addressed, ask your professor if he or she approves. If they do, know that this too can be distracting and disrespectful to those seated near you and to your professor if you choose to check emails, update Facebook, or surf the Internet during class. Use your computer for taking notes and, when it makes sense, for accessing a website being used during the lecture.

Communication Outside the Classroom

Contrary to popular rumor, most professors are very approachable, and they want you to communicate with them if you have questions or concerns. Perhaps you have a question about a grade on an assignment, or would like clarification on a concept covered in class, or you are in need of assistance choosing an appropriate research topic. Talk with your professors before or after class, write an email, or schedule an appointment to meet in their office. Be clear and concise, and always be courteous, respectful, and tactful. Remember that professors chose their careers because they are passionate about teaching and learning. When you have a sincere reason for communicating with your professor, you will likely find your professor is welcoming and happy to assist you. However, be certain that your purpose for speaking with your professor is appropriate. Below are some examples of comments and commonly asked questions that are generally not well received your professors:

• “I really need a ‘B’ (or ‘A’) in this class” or “Can I still get a B in this class?” or “I cannot fail this class!” Professors do not give grades; students earn grades. Your professor wants you to focus on learning rather than simply on your grade point average. And if you do have a concern about your grade, approach your professor early in the semester.
• “Is this going to be on the exam?” Check your syllabus and course schedule; your professor will likely share the exam format with you, but you will soon learn to process the information presented and discern important concepts.
• “That assignment/exam was unfair!” While it is acceptable to state your case regarding an assignment or exam, do so respectfully and with strong evidence if you want your professor to seriously consider your argument.

Again, those comments and questions that do not pertain to the topic of discussion in the classroom are best reserved for outside of class—you may speak with the professor before or after class. If this is not possible, you should use email to schedule an appointment or ask a question.

Most first-year college students are familiar with email and have been using it as a way to communicate with friends, family, and teachers for years before stepping on to a college campus. However, many first-year students are unaware of how to use their email efficiently and correctly. Aguilar-Roca, Williams, Warrior, and O’Dowd (2009) found that students that are trained in professional email etiquette saw an improvement in their email communication with professors. Professional email etiquette begins with your email address. First, you should only use your assigned university email for any university correspondence. This is the primary address your professors (and university) use to communicate with you. Using a non-university email account could pose risks to your privacy and may result in the email being sent to the professor’s spam folder. Aguilar-Roca et al. (2009) recommend that students do the following when emailing professors:

• In the subject line, place the course name.
• Start the email with Dr. or Professor and the professor’s last name.
• Use proper punctuation and grammar and proofread your email before sending.
• Do not use text message/instant messaging abbreviations in the email.
• Close the email with your name.

Also take into consideration professors have many responsibilities on campus besides teaching. It may take a minimum of 24 hours before your professor responds to your email.

Verbal, nonverbal, and electronic communication are all important, but there is another very important aspect of communication in higher education, and that is delivering presentations. Students will likely be delivering individual speeches or may be part of a group presentation. The remainder of this chapter addresses classroom presentations, beginning with your responsibility as a speaker.

Speaker Responsibility

Anyone giving a speech has the responsibility of being ethical. Ethics is a “branch of philosophy dealing with values relating to human conduct” (“Ethics,” n.d.). Ethics are important because words, either spoken or written, have the power to persuade, to do harm, and to affect society in general.

The speaker also has the responsibility to present information in an accurate manner and in the proper context. Words matter; they have done great things throughout history and have also done great harm throughout history. Consider not only what you will say but how you will deliver your message. Realize that verbal communication is irreversible; once a person says something, he or she cannot “un-say” that message. People may apologize, retract, or refute their own words, but the words have still been spoken. Another consideration is that all verbal communication has persuasive qualities. Some statements are more persuasive than others, but because all communication is motive-based, there is always a persuasive context.

Listener Responsibility

Just as speakers have responsibilities, so do listeners. Audience members have the ethical responsibility to pay attention to the speaker. Listening and hearing are not the same. Hearing is passive. When people listen, they are cognitively engaged with the speaker’s message, and that makes it an active process.

Sometimes people listen for appreciation, such as with music or television. Other times, such as in a classroom, students listen to comprehend/ understand material. Finally, one may listen to evaluate or make a judgment. In some instances, one may listen to comprehend, then make a judgment about what was heard. The latter two types of listening require more attention to detail and are on a higher cognitive level.

Chapter 3 notes good listening behaviors, and applying them can help you perform better in college. In college, students will be called upon to make presentations in the classroom. As one would want the audience—classmates and professor—to be polite and pay attention, students have the responsibility to pay close attention to classmates when they are speaking in class. Dozing off or studying for an exam while a classmate is speaking is ethically unacceptable.

Speech Goals

Professors may assign a certain type of speech for classroom presentation, or students may have leeway in their topic selection. There are two basic types of speeches that can be prepared: informative and persuasive.

In an informative speech, the speakers may see themselves as teachers in that they give their audience information and let them decide how they will use that information. For example, a speech about statistics on seat belt usage correlating with auto injuries and deaths could be done in a straightforward, informative format. But this speech could also take on a persuasive quality if the speaker wanted to convince the audience of the important aspects of wearing seat belts. In the persuasive speech, the speaker is an advocate for a position.

Speech Topics

Again, students may be assigned a topic or may be asked to choose their own topic. Whatever the situation, give careful consideration to topic selection and how the material will be presented. First, the topic must be appropriate (McKerrow, Gronbeck, Ehninger, & Monroe, 2003). Never offend any member of the audience; doing this gets a speaker nowhere and will likely cause a reduction in a grade. Nearly all topics can be presented if done in a professional manner. If there is any doubt, check with the professor on what and how to discuss the information.

Second, chances are the topic will require research. Sources must be reliable, relevant, and current to the topic. Be wary of sources that are not credible, as the information may be false or unreliable. Also, make sure the source does not have an agenda.

Finally, it may be necessary to narrow the topic. A topic such as environmental issues is very broad, whereas a topic such as water pollution or air quality is more focused and will result in the speech having more depth.

Speech Parts

The speech should be broken down into three sections: introduction, body, and conclusion (Osborne & Osborne, 1994). And the speech needs balance. Use the following guidelines:

Speech Body

The body is where the majority of your information is located. This information requires some facts. Facts are verifiable information. For example, one could present a speech about the growth of Kennesaw State University and claim that “KSU is the third largest university in the University System of Georgia.” This is a true statement and can easily be verified through numerous sources. The speech body also needs supporting materials in the form of examples, statistics, and/or testimony (Lucas, 2004).

Examples humanize information and make abstract concepts come to life. It is one thing to state, “Parking is a problem for many in the KSU community” and another to state, “Parking is so bad at KSU that this morning it took me 25 minutes to find a place to park my car.” This makes the situation real. An example could be hypothetical; that is, a fictitious event that could happen in real life, such as: “Let us suppose you are trying to find a place to park at KSU, you have an exam in 10 minutes, and the professor has a policy that anyone late to class on exam day gets a zero on that exam.” This is fictitious but applies a real-life possibility to make the point. Another type of example is a narrative or brief story. For the most part, audiences appreciate hearing stories told properly. A word of caution, however, the narrative should be related to the topic and not take up too much time.

Statistics are numerical data and “the interpretation of numerical facts or data” (“Statistics,” n.d.) that describe the magnitude of events. Think about how much of your life is explained through statistics: GPA, number of course hours, miles per gallon, consumer prices, cost of rent, increase in salary, etc. Statistics make a powerful impact on audiences but have limitations. Below are some guidelines for using statistics:

First, do not use too many numbers (Dobkin & Pace, 2003). Reading a large number of statistics will not only confuse an audience, but audience members may also become bored. In some cases statistics have to be explained. For example, is the audience aware of the difference between mean and median averages? Again, statistics are powerful but must be used appropriately and sparingly. Finally, incorporating statistics into your visual aids, to be discussed later in this chapter, may be an asset to you.

The last type of supporting material is testimony, which is the words of others and comes in three varieties (Osborne & Osborne, 1994).

Peer testimony is the words of average people. Let us go back to the parking example: Suppose you talked with a classmate about his/her problems parking at KSU. The student’s comments would be peer testimony.

Expert testimony is what it sounds like: a person who is an expert in the field of discussion. An expert on parking at KSU might be an administrator who studies and implements space issues, or a KSU police officer.

Prestige testimony is words the audience respects based upon the person’s good name and reputation. Suppose Atlanta Falcons quarterback Matt Ryan came to KSU to promote education and talked about his college career at Boston College. No doubt, Mr. Ryan also had occasional parking woes, as most university students do, and he might comment on student parking. However, he is certainly not an expert on the KSU parking situation.

Organizing the Speech Body

Informative and persuasive speeches have different organizational tools that can be used, but both types of speeches may implement strategies from the other type.

Informative Speech Design

In most classroom speeches you are going to be presenting an informative speech. In an informative speech you are a teacher—you are not advocating for a cause, you are providing the audience with information. The following are ways in which to organize your ideas for informative speeches:

The historical/chronological method examines change over time. Large events can be used as main points. For example, the history of the Civil Rights Movement could focus on issues such as Brown vs. Board of Education, Dr. Martin Luther’s Kings famous “I Have a Dream Speech,” and the 1964 Voting Rights Act. Suppose a student wanted to do a speech on the history of Kennesaw State University. Because it is important to break the speech body down into main points, a good way to structure the speech body would be to break the history down by major events:

• The first main point could be the reasons the school was started and the process of opening the school.
• The second main point could be about the growth leading the then two-year college to become a four-year institution.
• The third main point might be about the incredible growth of the 1990s and achieving university status.
• The fourth main point could focus on the year 2000 and after, with emphasis on housing, athletics, and program development.

Each of these main points would have subpoints in them and cover a wide range of issues. There is no set number of main points for speeches. Analyze your topic and allow what works best for you to be your guide.

Spatial speech designs are how things are arranged and their relationships by space. A geography major might use a spatial design to inform the audience about the layout of KSU, or the city of Atlanta, or the design of the Convocation Center. Suppose a student wanted to deliver a speech on the layout of New Orleans:

• One main point could be the popular French Quarter.
• Another main point might cover the beautiful garden district.
• A third main point might cover the business district.

Process speeches can make good use of the order of sequence. Suppose a communication major with a media emphasis wanted to inform the audience how a newspaper story is created from beginning to end. Using the sequence of story selection and assignment, interviews and research, writing the story, sending it to the copy editor, forwarding it to the print department, and finally delivering the paper would be a logical way to organize ideas. As another example, if a student wanted to do a speech on the process of interviewing, it could be structured as such:

• The first main point would be about researching potential jobs.
• The second main point might cover creating a résumé and cover letter.
• The third main point might concern an actual interview.

Remember, main points have subpoints. Take the last main point on interviewing. The subpoints could be:

• Practicing/mock interview
• How to dress
• What to do and not do during the interview
• Following up afterward

Categorical organization is a good choice for topics that logically and naturally fall into certain categories. Different types of schools in the University System of Georgia would best be explained by noting that there are Research I schools, such as the University of Georgia, Georgia State University, and Georgia Tech; then there are state universities, such as KSU, Clayton State, and the University of West Georgia; and there are technical-based schools, such as Southern Polytechnic State University. Regional schools include Georgia Southern University and Valdosta State University (“Institutions map,” 2007). In this categorical design there would be four main points, one for each category.

The cause-effect organization usually has two main points. For instance, a social work major might want to discuss teen drug use, with the first main point as the cause of drug use focusing on issues of poor parental supervision, peer pressure, and poor grades in school. Then as the effect, the second main point, he would present truancy, sexually transmitted disease, crime, violence, etc.

The effect-cause design reverses the previous method. Suppose an economics major has the topic of inflation. If the first main point is the effect of inflation, then the second main point concerns what caused the effects.

The key factor to which of these two are used is what best fits a particular topic.

Persuasive Speech Designs

Persuasive speeches are of three primary varieties: (1) trying to influence the audience to agree with a particular position, such as advocating more troop deployment to Afghanistan; (2) calling on the audience to agree and then to act upon something, such as agreeing that Afghanistan needs more American troops, but also acting by writing a letter to government officials in support of said position; or (3) refuting a stated position, such as arguing against American troop reduction in Afghanistan.

Ways to organize persuasive speeches including the following:

In the problem-solution design there are two main points. The first clearly details the problem, and the second provides a way to address the problem. For example, a social work major is going to present a speech on teen pregnancy. The first main point could note the personal and social problems that can occur due to teen pregnancy, then the second main point could cover programs and counseling to address these problems.

The problem-cause-solution method is an extension of the previous method with an added main point: cause. In problem-solution, the cause may be mentioned in the first main point but is not as detailed as the three-step process. After the problem is presented, a thorough examination of the cause of the problem is addressed.

As an example, suppose a student wants to deliver a speech about his or her university’s parking woes. The first main point would note the issues (problem) of parking needs and availability on campus. The second main point could be about congestion, space issues, and peak parking demand. The third and final main point could offer solutions such as increased shuttle services, altering class scheduling during peak times, and offering online and hybrid courses.

Arguments

An argument takes a persuasive position on an issue and contains claims, supported by evidence, and tied together with reason (“Argument,” n.d.). The claim is what/how you think things are or should be. A claim stating: “KSU needs to build more parking decks” could be supported by evidence, using supporting materials such as statistics noting need versus space, geographical factors, and student frustration, and connected with reason/logic. It is an easy connection to make, as the number of parking spaces and the increase in vehicle numbers are directly correlated with the claim. Arguments come in three basic types: fact, value, and policy (McKerrow, Gronbeck, Ehninger, & Monroe, 2003).

Arguments from fact are about whether something did or did not happen. For example, criminal jury trials are about questions of fact.

Both of these examples have competing positions that can be taken.

Arguments from value are based upon the right and wrong of an issue or the goodness or badness of an issue, and may use a moral argument platform.

Policy arguments take the position that a course of action should or should not be taken.

Realize that each of these type of arguments will probably incorporate tenets of the other two. A policy speech could use facts as argument and support, and values to bring in what is right and wrong.

A topic can also be approached in different manners. In 2009, KSU initiated a mandatory meal plan policy for most students—a topic that could be argued from fact, value, or policy.

What determines the category is the goal, or what is to be accomplished in the speech.

Reasoning

After the speech is prepared, go over it word for word and assess it for logic. How easy will it be for the audience to understand the points? Does it flow well? Ensure that it is easy to understand and will make sense to the audience. Once the body of the speech is organized, the speech introduction can be developed.

Speech Introduction

The speech introduction is an opportunity to make a good first impression. It should be carefully crafted and should interest the audience. Generally speaking, the speech introduction has six components. Each of these fulfills a vital function. The six functions are:

• To get the audience’s attention
• To introduce yourself (if necessary)
• To announce the topic
• To justify the topic
• To establish your credibility
• To give the audience a preview statement

It is imperative to grab the audience’s attention as the speech begins; this may be done in a variety of ways. One way is to provide shocking statistics. Suppose a social work major’s speech topic was about teen pregnancy rates. A statement such as: “This year alone more than 1,000,000 teen girls in the United States will become pregnant. Of that 1,000,000, 95% are unintentional and one-half are 17 years old or younger.” Also realize that you will need to cite a source for such information.

Another way to get the audience’s attention is to use a narrative. If using the teen pregnancy topic, it might be wise to tell a very brief story noting the effects of teen pregnancy.

Also, questions or a series of questions, either real or rhetorical, cognitively engage the audience.

Another suggestion for grabbing the audience’s attention is, depending on the topic, for the speaker to share a famous or profound quote as long as it matches the topic, or if appropriate to the topic, a joke or brief funny story. A word of caution—never joke about a serious and/or sad story or topic.

The second thing to do, if the audience is unfamiliar, is to introduce yourself.

Third is to clearly state the topic. Do not keep the audience uninformed about your issue. For example, the speech on teen pregnancy might have a topic statement such as: “Today I am going to talk to you about the problem of teen pregnancy.”

After introducing the topic, provide a statement or two to justify its importance. This is easily done by: “Teen pregnancy has an impact upon millions of mothers, children, our school systems, and our economy.”

Next, ask yourself, “Where do I get the authority to speak on an important topic?” Establishing your credibility on the topic can be done in two ways: (1) By personal experience and/or (2) by revealing credible research. For example: “I have first-hand knowledge of teen pregnancy because I have a cousin currently in that situation, and I have thoroughly researched the topic.”

Finally, make it easy for both you and the audience to know what is going to occur in the speech by providing a preview statement of your main points. Using our present topic, a good preview statement would be: “Today I am going to tell you the problems with teen pregnancy, then I will cover the causes, and finally I will offer several solutions to combat teen pregnancy.”

The best speeches are simple to understand. Clearly letting the audience know what, why, and how you will present the material is imperative for a good speech.

Speech Conclusion

The conclusion is the last component of the speech and needs to be as carefully crafted as the other two speech parts. Remember, it is the last thing the audience will hear the speaker say.

When beginning the conclusion, summarize what was covered in the speech body, highlighting only the most important factors. After the summary, end the speech with a few words. These are concluding remarks. Here is an excellent chance to give your opinion, even in an informative speech. Finally, “end with a bang” by knowing exactly how you will finish your speech. End clearly and concisely. Do not end your speech by saying “that’s it.”

If the speech is persuasive in nature, this is where you make strong and compelling statements. If you want the audience to do something, it is where you give a call for action.

Transitions

Transitions are tools that let both the speaker and the audience know where you have been in the speech and where you are going by linking information together (Osborne & Osborne, 1994). Think of words that begin with the root word “trans-.” Transport, transfer, transcribe, transmission, Trans-Atlantic, transmit, and transform. All these words show change, a shift in direction.

Transitions are imperative when leaving the introduction. For example, your preview statement, which is the last thing done in the introduction, might be “Today, I am going to discuss the causes of teen drug use and then the effects.” The transition could simply be: “First, let’s look at the cause of teen drug use.”

You will also need a transition between main points. As you end the first main point (the cause), a statement might be, “Now that I have discussed the causes of teen drug use, let’s delve into the effects of that use.” This simple sentence lets the audience, and you, know that a shift is being made.

The other place a transition is required is when leaving the speech body; somehow, the audience needs to be alerted that the speech is nearing its end. After finishing the above-mentioned main points, a speaker might say something as simple as, “In conclusion” or might be more creative and declare: “Today I have discussed teen drug use causes and effects, and what can we conclude?”

Transitions are very important and should be used with regularity. Once the speech topic is selected and researched and the speech is logically organized with appropriate arguments, reasoning, and transitions, it is time to focus on delivering the presentation.

Communication Apprehension

Speech anxiety, formally known as communication apprehension, is a natural aspect of public speaking. Everyone has some apprehension, but on varying levels. Even people who like to speak still get nervous. Anxiety can be reduced and/or controlled by not procrastinating, by being organized, and by practicing the delivery of the speech. Also, speakers should not let the negative voice inside them, or spoken by others, cause them to doubt their ability. Everyone has the ability to properly deliver a speech. If anxiety is a concern, speakers cannot only prepare and practice but also use positive visualization for internal support by imagining giving a successful presentation. Self-fulfilling prophecy can be an aid, not a hindrance.

Speech Delivery

Delivery involves how you speak the words and how you convey the nonverbal aspects of communicating to an audience.

There are four primary delivery styles:

• Manuscript
• Memorizing
• Impromptu
• Extemporaneous

In manuscript style, the speech is written out word for word and read to the audience. This method is discouraged and in most public speaking classes not allowed. Reading sounds like reading; only professionals can use this style. Additionally, it is difficult to make good eye contact with the audience, which is imperative for a speech, while reading.

The second style is memorizing the speech. This is also discouraged because memory lapses can cause the speech to be a failure.

Impromptu delivery style is the most difficult delivery style for most people. In this style, the speaker is given a topic and a very brief, if any, time period of preparation. This does occur in some classroom settings when a professor asks for someone to defend or to refute a position.

Extemporaneous speaking occurs when the speaker carefully crafts, works off an outline, and practices the speech. This is the preferred method of speech delivery. Obviously there will be some memorization in extemporaneous style, but familiarity is different from memorizing word for word.

A note about extemporaneous delivery: Do not feel as if you have to use the same words each time you practice or formally deliver the speech. A professor may give the same lecture to several different sections; the words will not be exactly the same for each, but the content will be.

A final note about delivery: Lucas (2004) notes that “Good delivery does not call attention to itself ” (p. 294). A magnificent delivery may call attention away from the importance of the topic. Speech delivery should have some attributes of conversation but be more formal and more energetic. Different topics and audiences require different delivery styles. A politician wanting votes is in a different situation than a friend delivering a eulogy at a funeral. Carefully assess the topic, audience, and context.

Eye Contact

Speakers usually glance at well-organized notes, but eye contact with the audience is imperative for success. Do not focus on one or two people, but scan the entire audience in a natural manner. In a normal classroom setting, say 25 to 35 students, you should be able to make sustained eye contact once with each person in the room.

Voice

The speaker’s voice is the medium by which he or she delivers the speech message. Rate, pitch, volume, and vocal inferences are all components of voice.

The rate is how fast or slowly the speech is delivered. The average in the United States is 125–150 words per minute (Lucas, 2004). Sometimes, due to nervousness, people have the tendency to speak faster when standing in front of an audience. If you think this might be a problem, you might want to draw “slow down” or “stop” signs on your outline as a mental aid.

The pitch is voice tone, and most people have a natural rise and fall in tone. Try to avoid a monotone drone, but also be sure to sound natural.

Volume is the loudness of your voice. It is essential that every audience member be able to hear the speaker. Some people, especially those who are naturally shy, speak too softly; this is maddening for an audience. Fill the room with your voice, but do not shout at the audience members.

Saying “uh,” “er,” “hmm,” and “duh” are all vocal interferences. To some extent they are natural and most everyone says them. But too many will distract and bore the audience. Being prepared and practiced should help reduce these sometimes annoying inflections.

Posture, Appearance, and Hand Gestures

How you present your body torso to the audience is posture. Stand up straight; do not lean on a table, chair, or podium. It is alright to walk around a bit during a presentation. Ask your professor how this will be evaluated.

Hand gestures are motions used to emphasize or to draw attention to certain aspects of the speech. Never put your hands in your pockets. Hands can be used to hold notes or some visual aid material. Hand gestures should accentuate important material but always appear as natural.

Appearance is the overall look the speaker presents in front of the audience, including dress, neatness, and personal grooming. How should you dress? First, discuss expectations with your professor. If the professor has no guidelines, you should dress neatly, appearing clean and wearing appropriate attire. Avoid being sloppy. Hair should be neatly groomed with no headwear, and, of course, personal hygiene is a factor. Also avoid wearing distracting attire such as necklaces, bracelets, rings, etc. Many students will play with these items during the delivery of their speech, which is distracting to the audience. Realize that these nonverbal concepts make an impact on how the audience sees you and your topic.

Visual Aids

Some speeches require visual aids, and your professor may have requirements. As always, ask for clarification. Visual aids are anything presented in a form that the listener can see to supplement the information the listener hears (Hamilton, 2005). Possible visual aid material includes charts and graphs.

Charts and graphs, similar to those shown in Figure 5.1, are tools that present complex data in a condensed manner. They are a valuable aid in detailing trends or portions of information, especially in statistics.

Delivery Methods

PowerPoint is a Microsoft Corporation software package that is popular today for both professors and students. As a visual aid, PowerPoint can present images, main points, and ideas in a colorful and pleasing manner. Two notes of caution: (1) Do not use PowerPoint slides as giant note cards and (2) you must still maintain eye contact with your audience. The slides are not your speech, but an aid to you. Do not merely read from the slides; supplement the speech by using bullet points on the slides. If you use PowerPoint, ensure that you can still make eye contact with the audience and that equipment and room layout do not hinder this. Use the computer monitor to view your slides, and do not read from the screen as in most circumstances that means your back is turned to the audience.

Transparencies or materials displayed on document cameras are usually either drawn or photocopied materials highlighting important aspects of your speech. Prior to PowerPoint, transparencies were quite popular. Today document cameras are commonly used to project materials. As with all visual aids, slides and other projected materials should be neat, used solely as an aid, and presented such that all audience members can see them.

Models are used to present objects. Models may be smaller than what they represent, such as a physics major using a model airplane in explaining how a real airplane uses lift to take off , or they may be larger than the actual object, such as when a biology major uses a model to explain how the human eye functions.

Objects are tangible things used to assist in explaining material. Suppose a KSU hockey player was delivering a speech about playing hockey and wanted to demonstrate all the equipment. Those pieces of equipment would be excellent visual aids to assist in delivering the speech.

Delivering a Group Presentation

In your college career it is likely that you will be assigned to a group to develop a project. In some cases, your professor will want you to present this project to the class. Many times, groups of students do not consider transitioning between speakers. Further, group presentations have unique challenges in that different people have different speaking styles. The following are a couple of options for presenting group information.

Moderator Approach

Suppose a group moderator, Claire, wants to set up the situation so the audience will be able to easily understand the topic. Her group has researched the topic, “Has man caused global warming/climate change?” Claire opens with:

“We have all heard much about the debate about whether human activity is causing harm to our climate, and subsequently our planet. Today, our group will present evidence on both sides of the debate. First, Christine will present known data on Earth’s temperatures and carbon emissions. Then, Jake will present evidence that human activity is causing temperatures to rise. Next, Heather will provide evidence that the change is natural and reasonable. Finally, Ryan will deliver what our group thinks about the issue. So, let’s begin with Christine.”

An easy way to transition between speakers would be for Christine to finish her report and then say: “Now, Jake is going to present another point of view.” This serves as both a transition and a preview of the next speaker.

Bookend Approach

The bookend method can be approached in a similar fashion as the moderator approach, but in this method the first speaker is also the last speaker and presents the conclusion. This gives a nice sense of closure to the presentation. Transitions between speakers are, of course, necessary in this approach as well.

There are various other methods to use in making a group presentation. Whatever the method, groups should schedule time to practice together in private and ensure smooth transitions. Say a group of five students is giving a presentation. The group should not view the presentation as five small speeches, but as one presentation with five speakers. Practice is essential for success.

Final Matters

Public speaking is one of the oldest art forms on Earth; it can be a pleasant and powerful manner of delivering a message. To succeed, you must prepare, organize, and practice.

Prepare

Preparing to speak is deciding on the topic by analyzing the audience and its expectation, and it is making a schedule to break down the information into sections.

Organize

To organize the speech means deciding how to get the main points across, researching those points, and creating the three-section speech.

Practice

Practice is going over the speech several times, standing in front of a mirror and/or delivering the speech to family members or roommates.

By following the prepare, organize, and practice method, or POP, you are more likely to give a successful speech.

Summary

Communication takes place inside and outside of the classroom; some modes are more obvious than others. Be willing to participate in classroom and group discussions, be aware of the messages you are communicating through nonverbal communication, and take advantage of the opportunities to develop and hone speech communication skills. Verbal communication skills are valued, even required, by many employers. Perhaps more importantly, throughout history, the ability both to speak in public and to evaluate what others say has been important. As members of a free society, it is our obligation to be good consumers of information. It is imperative to plan in advance for a classroom presentation. The purpose of the speech must be clear and the topic appropriate. The information in the speech needs to come from reliable sources, have supporting material, and be logical in nature. It is important to break the speech into three distinct parts, with transitions throughout. Some topics require visual aids. Finally, a pleasing delivery helps both the speaker and the audience.

References

Critical Thinking Questions

Additional Resources