In their search for an improved understanding of the past, historians look for a variety of evidence—written documents, visual sources, and material artifacts. When they encounter any of these primary sources, historians ask certain key questions. You should ask these questions too. Sometimes historians cannot be certain about the answers, but they always ask the questions. Indeed, asking questions is the first step in writing history. Moreover, facts do not speak for themselves. It is the task of the historian to organize and interpret the facts in a reasoned and verifiable manner.
Analyzing a Written Document
What kind of document is this? For example, is it a diary, letter, speech, sermon, court opinion, newspaper article, witness testimony, poem, memoir, or advertisement?
Who wrote the document? How can you identify the author? Was the source translated by someone other than the author or speaker (for example, American Indian speeches translated by whites)?
When and where was it written?
Why was the document written? Is there a clear purpose?
Who was, or who might have been, its intended audience?
What point of view does it reflect?
What can the document tell us about the individual(s) who produced it and the society from which he, she, or they came?
How might individuals’ race, ethnicity, class, gender, and region have affected the viewpoints in the documents?
In what ways does the larger historical context help you evaluate individual sources?
Analyzing a Visual or Material Source
What kind of visual or material source is this? For example, is it a map, drawing or engraving, physical object, painting, photograph, or political cartoon?
Who made the image or artifact, and how was it made?
When and where was the image or artifact made?
Can you determine if someone paid for or commissioned it? If so, how can you tell that it was paid for or commissioned?
Who might have been the intended audience or user? Where might it have originally been displayed or used?
What message or messages is it trying to convey?
How might it be interpreted differently depending on who viewed or used it?
What can the visual or material source tell us about the individual who produced it and the society from which he or she came?
In what ways does the larger historical context help you evaluate individual sources?
Comparing Multiple Sources
In what ways are the sources similar in purpose and content? In what ways are they different?
How much weight should one give to who wrote or produced the source?
Were the sources written or produced at the same time or at different times? If they were produced at different times, does this account for any of the differences between or among the sources?
What difference does it make that some sources (such as diaries and letters) were intended to be private and some sources (such as political cartoons and court opinions) were meant to be public?
How do you account for different perspectives and conclusions? How might these be affected by the author’s relative socioeconomic position or political power in the larger society?
Is it possible to separate fact from personal opinion in the sources?
Can the information in the sources under review be corroborated by other evidence? What other sources would you want to consult to confirm your conclusions?
Cautionary Advice for Interpreting Primary Sources
A single source does not tell the whole story, and even multiple sources may not provide a complete account. Historians realize that not all evidence is recoverable.
Sources have biases, whether they appear in personal or official documents. Think of biases as particular points of view, and try to figure out how they influence the historical event and the accounts of that event.
Sources reflect the period in which they were written or produced and must be evaluated within the historical time frame from which they came. Explain how people understood the world in which they lived, and be careful to avoid imposing contemporary standards on the past. Nevertheless, remember that even in any particular time period people disagreed over significant principles and practices such as slavery, imperialism, and immigration.
Sources often conflict or contradict each other. Take into account all sides. Do not dismiss an account that does not fit into your interpretation; rather, explain why you are giving it less weight or how you are modifying your interpretation to conform to all the evidence.
Exploring American HistoriesPrinted Page vii