I-1
Numbers in italic indicate that the information will be found in an illustration or table.
A
A band, 683, 684
A horizon, 540
Aardvarks, 340, 514
Abandonment, 832
“ABC” system, 580
Abiotic components, 846
ABO blood group, 159–160
Aboral surface, 498
Abortion, spontaneous, 145
Abscisic acid, 559, 566–567, 599, 600
Abscission, 562
Absorption
in the digestive system, 633
in the midgut, 638
phenotypic plasticity in, 635
Absorption spectrum, 120
Absorptive heterotrophy, 408, 451–452
Absorptive state, 639
Abundance
meanings of, 865
measures of, 865
populations and, 865
variation in space and over time, 865, 866
Abyssal zone, 857
Acanthamoeba polyphaga mimivirus (APMV), 397
Acanthostega, 506
Accessory fruits, 444
Accessory pigments, 121
Accessory reproductive organs, 770
Acclimate, 618
Acclimatize, 618
Acetaminophen, 37
Acetone, 253
Acetyl CoA
anabolic conversions, 117
in the citric acid cycle, 111
formation by β-oxidation of fatty acids, 116
formation in pyruvate oxidation, 110–111
in glucose-activated fatty acid synthesis, 118
total production in glucose oxidation, 113
Acetylation, of histones, 227
Acetylcholine (ACh), 97, 709, 710, 726
Acetylcholine receptor, 97
Acetylcholinesterase, 57
Acetylsalicylic acid, 37
Achatina fulica, 486
Acid growth hypothesis, 563
Acid–base catalysis, 51
Acidophilic thermophiles, 389
Acinonyx jubatus, 832
Acoelomates, 473, 474
Acorn worms, 499–500
Acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS)
description of, 824–825
drug treatments, 212, 825
fungal diseases and, 454
HIV life cycle, 225 (see also Human immunodeficiency virus)
Acrocentric chromosomes, 346
Acromyrmex versicolor, 882
Acropora millepora, 325
Acrosomal process, 774
Acrosome, 774
Actin
contractile ring, 135
microfilaments, 73, 74
sliding-filament theory of muscle contraction, 682–688
Actin filaments
sliding-filament theory of muscle contraction, 682–688
structure, 685
in the structure of myofibrils, 682–684
Actinobacteria, 384–385
Actinomyces, 385
Action potentials
at chemical synapses, 709
at electrical synapses, 710
excitable cells and, 700
excitation of muscle fibers, 685, 686
neural basis of sensation and, 715
at neuromuscular junctions, 710
production and propagation, 700, 707–708
properties of electricity and membrane potentials, 702–707
sensory transduction and, 714
summation of postsynaptic potentials and, 712–713
travel in large axons and in myelinated axons, 708–709
See also Nerve impulse
Action spectrum, 120
Activation energy, 50
Activators
enhancers and, 223
in positive gene regulation, 216
regulation of inducible and repressible systems, 219
Active site, of enzymes, 51
Active transport, 91–92
Adaptations
natural selection and the creation of, 10–11, 304–305
proximate and ultimate explanations, 11
Adaptive defenses
compared to innate defenses, 811
defined, 810
overview, 810
Adaptive immune response
discovery and overview, 815–816
key features of, 816–817
role of macrophages and dendritic cells in, 817
types of responses in, 817–818 (see also Cellular immune response; Humoral immune response)
Adenine
base pairing, 38–40, 41
in DNA, 176, 177
in DNA replication, 179
structure, 38
Adenohypophysis. See Anterior pituitary
Adenosine, 102–103
Adenosine diphosphate (ADP), 106, 107
Adenosine monophosphate (AMP), 106, 107
Adenosine receptors, 102–103
Adenosine triphosphate (ATP)
in active transport, 91, 92
in aerobic cellular respiration, 109, 110
as a cofactor, 52
hydrolysis and the release of energy, 106–107
linkage of cellular respiration to photosynthesis, 118
muscle contraction and, 685, 688
in the release and reuse of cellular energy, 108
structure and properties, 106–107
systems for supplying to muscle cells, 691–692
See also ATP production
Adhesion, 23–24
Adiabatic process, 850
Adiantum, 431
Adrenal cortex
hypothalamus–pituitary–adrenal cortex axis, 742–743
major hormones and their actions, 739, 744
Adrenal medulla
fight-or-flight response, 739
major hormones and their actions, 739, 744
Adrenaline. See Epinephrine
Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), 741, 743, 744
Adventitious roots, 529, 530, 531, 532, 535
Advil, 37
Aegolius acadicus, 512
Aepyceros melampus, 827, 840
Aequorea victoria, 325
Aequorin, 686
Aerenchyma, 599
Aerobic ATP production, 617
Aerobic cellular respiration
ATP yield 113, 113
chemiosmosis, 111–113, 114
citric acid cycle, 111
glycolysis, 109–110
overview, 109
oxidative phosphorylation, 111, 112
pyruvate oxidation, 110–111
Aerobic metabolism
defined, 3
in the evolution of life, 3
prokaryotes, 394
Aerotolerant anaerobes, 394
Aeta people, 869, 870
Aflatoxin, 191
African apes, 515
African clawed frog, 454
See also Xenopus laevis
African coelacanth, 505
African insectivores, 514
Afrosoricida, 514
AGAMOUS gene, 580
Agarose, 255
Agassiz, Louis, 494
Age of Humans, 861–862
Aggregate fruits, 444
Aging, telomere length and, 184
Agre, Peter, 90
Agriculture
biotechnology and, 267–270
coffee cultivation, 898, 900, 914
ecological impact of, 861, 862
effects of nitrogen runoff, 923, 925
fertilizers, 541
Green Revolution, 555, 570–571, 876
hybrids and apomixis, 586–587
importance of evolutionary principles to, 321–322
importance of plant cloning, 276
“intercropping,” 914
pathogenic fungi and, 454
polyploidy and crop plants, 145–146
shifting agriculture, 541
sustainable, 553–554
vegetative reproduction and, 587
I-2
Agrobacterium tumefaciens, 259, 387, 388
Agropyron repens, 440
AHK protein, 566
AHP protein, 566
AIDS. See Acquired immune deficiency syndrome
Air quality indicators, 466
Air sacs
bird lungs, 652–653
insect tracheal breathing system, 653, 654
Alanine, 43
Alcohol detoxification enzymes, 618
Alcoholic beverages, 105, 126
Alcoholic fermentation, 115, 116, 126
Alcoholism, 215, 232
Aldehyde group, 25
Alderflies, 495
Aldosterone, 738
Aleurone layer, 560
Alexandrium, 401
Algae
defined, 421
in the evolution of plants, 422
symbiosis with corals, 631
Alkaloids, 594
Alkaptonuria, 195
Allantois, 803
Allele frequencies
calculating, 307–308
gene flow and, 305
genetic drift and, 305
the genetic structure of a population and, 308
Hardy–Weinberg equilibrium and, 308–310
impact of nonrandom mating on, 306, 307
Alleles
defined, 152, 302
gene pools, 302–303
heterozygote advantage, 316–317
hierarchy of dominance, 158–159
homozygous and heterozygous, 153
human pedigrees, 157–158
incompatibility between can produce reproductive isolation, 346, 347
inheritance, 152–158
in the production of phenotype, 158–162
wild type and mutant, 158
Allergic reaction, 814
Alligators, 510
Allocation principle, 870
Allolactose, 217
Allometry, 804
Allomyces macrogynus, 461
Allopatric populations, 354
Allopatric speciation, 348–349
Allopolyploidy, 350
Allosteric enzymes, 54–55
Allosteric regulation
compared to transcriptional regulation, 219–220
description of, 54–55
in signal transduction pathways, 96
Alpha (α) cells, 640
Alpha (α) helix
in leucine zippers, 232
in protein structure, 44, 46
Alpha-linolenic acid, 627
α-Adrenergic receptors, 739
Alpine biome, 855
Alpine meadows, 855, 856
Alpine pennycress, 601–602
Alsophilia spinulosa, 429
Alternation of generations
ferns, 430–431
land plants, 424–425
protist life cycles, 414–415
Alternative splicing, of mRNA, 229, 230
Altruism, 840–841, 895
Alveolar sacs, 654, 655
Alveolates, 406–407
Alveoli, 654, 655
Alzheimer’s disease, 223–224
Amacrine cells, 720, 721
Amanita muscaria, 465
Amber, 172
Amborella, 445
Amborella trichopoda, 445
Ambros, Victor, 230
Ambulacrarians, 498
Amebocytes, 810
Amensalism, 883, 884
American bison, 883, 889
American chestnut, 464, 891
American elm, 464
Amine hormones
receptor proteins, 738
secretion, 739
structure and function, 638, 737
Amino acids
absorption in the midgut, 638
in animal nutrition, 627
binding of tRNA to, 206–207
essential amino acids, 627, 641
genetic code, 203–206
major groupings, 43–44
as neurotransmitters, 711
nonprotein, 594
peptide bonding, 44, 45
polypeptide formation in translation, 206–210
regulation of blood levels, 640
structure of, 42–43
Amino group, 25, 42–43
“Ammocoetes,” 805
Ammonia
cycling, 395–396
nitrogen fixation and, 543–544
Ammonium, 922
Ammonium sulfate, 541
Ammonotelic animals, 755
Amnion, 794
Amniote egg, 508
Amniotes
colonization of dry environments, 508
evolution of, 506
extraembryonic membranes, 802–804
phylogeny of, 509
See also Mammals; Reptiles
Amniotic cavity, 803
Amoeba proteus, 76, 412
Amoebozoans, 412–414
Amphibian decline
experiments on, 12–13, 14, 15
pathogenic fungi and, 454, 455
world-wide occurrence of, 508
Amphibians
adaptations for life on land, 506
breathing system, 652
circulatory system, 666–667
excretion of nitrogenous wastes, 756
gastrulation, 794–795
hearts, 667
life cycles, 507–508
major groups and key features, 506–507
metamorphosis, 805
nephron function and urine production, 761–763
organizer, 799
polarity in early development, 789
Amphidiniopsis kofoidii, 406
Amphipathic molecules, 30
Amphiprion, 884–885
Amphiprion ocellaris, 885
Amphiprion percula, 775
Amphisbaenians, 508
Ampicillin, 380–381
Amygdala, 729
Amylase, 636
Anabaena, 386
Anabolic interconversions, 117
Anabolic reactions/pathways
defined, 32
linkage and integration with catabolism, 116–118
photosynthesis (see Photosynthesis)
regulation by repressible systems, 219
Anacharis, 120
Anaerobic ATP production, 617
Anaerobic catabolism, 115–116
Anaerobic glycolysis, 617
Anaerobic metabolism
defined, 3
in the evolution of life, 3
prokaryotes, 394
Anal fins, 503
Ananas comosus, 444
Anaphase
meiosis I, 141
meiosis II, 142
mitosis, 135, 136, 137, 141
Ancestral states, reconstruction, 325, 336–337, 341
Ancestral trait, 328
Anchor cell, 281
Anchored membrane proteins, 83, 85
Andersson, Malte, 307
Androctonus, 492
Androgens, 744, 746, 747
Anemia, 196, 202
Anemone, 775
Anemonefish, 775
Anencephaly, 798
Aneuploidy, 145, 228
Anfinsen, Christian, 48
Angel insects, 495
Angiosperm sexual reproduction
double fertilization, 577
female gametophyte, 575
flower morphology, 574–575
male gametophyte, 575–576
mechanisms to prevent inbreeding, 576
overview, 574, 575
partial reproductive isolation in Phlox drummondii, 346–347
phylogenetic analyses of fertilization mechanisms, 336, 337
poinsettias, 573
transition to flowering, 579–585 (see also Flowering)
Angiosperms
asexual reproduction, 585–587
behavioral isolation and, 352, 353
characteristics of, 424
coevolution with animals, 441–442
in the evolution of plants, 422
flower morphology and evolution, 439–441
fruits, 443–444
life cycle, 442–443
mechanical isolation, 351
phylogenetic analyses of fertilization mechanisms, 336, 337
phylogenetic relationships, 445–447
postzygotic isolating mechanisms, 353–354
shared derived traits, 439
symbiosis with nitrogen-fixing bacteria, 373
See also Plant body
Angraecum sesquipedale, 420
Animal behavior
adjustments of, 828
effects of learning and development on, 830–832
evolution of, 829
impact on ecological communities and structures, 827, 841–842
integration with the rest of function, 832–834
navigation and orientation, 834–838
neural basis of, 828
phylogenetic analyses and, 331
the problem of determinism, 829–830
regulation of body temperature, 613
schooling, 827, 843
sexual, 774
social behavior, 839–841
Animal cells
cell junctions, 78–79
cytokinesis, 135, 137
extracellular matrix, 77–78
structure of, 66
Animal cloning, 276, 277
Animal communication
I-3
body size and, 833
honey bee waggle dance, 837
Animal defense systems
adaptive defenses and the adaptive immune response, 810, 811, 815–818 (see also Adaptive immune response)
flu viruses and, 298, 323
innate defenses, 810, 812–814
types of responses to pathogens, 810
Animal development
cleavage, 790–794
direct and indirect development, 804–805
egg and sperm contributions to the zygote, 788
establishment of polarity, 788–789
extraembryonic membranes, 802–804
gastrulation, 794–797
holoprosencephaly, 787, 806
mosaic and regulative development, 791–792
organogenesis and neurulation in chordates, 797–801
Animal groups
Bilateria, 475
cnidarians, 478–480
ctenophores, 477–478
deuterostomes, 497–504 (see also Vertebrates)
eumetazoans, 475
placozoans, 478
protostomes, 480–490
sponges, 475–477
summary of living members of major groups, 476
Animal hemisphere, 789, 792, 794
Animal hormones
compared to plant hormones, 557
function in endocrine control, 735–736
major groups and their actions, 737, 738, 744
regulation of appetite and the processing of meals, 639–640
regulation of physiological systems in mammals, 744–747
regulation of the mammalian reproductive system, 776–781, 784
See also Endocrine system; individual hormones
Animal nutrition
animal–microbe symbioses and, 630–632, 641
essential nutrients, 627–628, 629
food provides energy and chemical building blocks, 625–629
nutrient deficiencies, 628–629
regulation of meal processing, 639–641
relationship of food value to digestive abilities, 632–635 (see also Digestion; Digestive systems)
study of, 624
ways of acquiring food, 629–630
See also Eating; Food
“Animal pole,” 280
Animal reproduction
accessory reproductive organs, 770
advantages and disadvantages of sexual reproduction, 769–770
asexual, 769, 770
contraceptive methods, 781–782
embryonic diapause, 782–783
external and internal fertilization, 773–774
gametogenesis, 771–773
overview, 769
primary reproductive organs, 770
reproductive characteristics of rabbits, 768
seasonal reproductive cycles, 784
secondary sexual characteristics, 770–771
semelparity and iteroparity, 783–784
sex changes, 775, 776
sex determination, 774–775
Animals
coevolution with plants, 411–442
control mechanisms, 619–622
eating to obtain energy and chemical building blocks, 605–606
energy needs, 607–609
evidence for the monophyly of, 470–471
fluid compartments, 615–616
general characteristics, 470
homeostasis, 610
homeotherms (see Homeotherms/Homeothermy)
internal and external environments, 609
levels of organization within, 616–617
phenotypic plasticity, 618–619
phylogenetic tree, 470
poikilotherms, 610–612, 613
regulation of meal processing in, 639–641 (see also Animal nutrition)
regulators and conformers, 609–610
undiscovered living species, 469, 517–518
Anions, 24–25
Annelids
key features, 484–485
major subgroups, 476
segmentation, 474, 475, 484
Annual rings, 534
Annuals, 579, 597
Anodorhynchus hyacinthinus, 894
Anomalocaris canadensis, 369
Anopheles, 416
Anoxia, 925
Anser anser, 830–831
Ant lions, 495
Antagonistic muscle pairs, 689, 690, 727
Antagonists, of receptors, 97
Antarctic biogeographic region, 858, 859
Antarctic fur seals, 782–783
Antarctic Ocean, 362
Anteaters, 514
Antelopes, 827, 840
Antennae, 474, 717
Antennapedia gene, 287, 288, 290
Anterior, 473
Anterior pituitary gland
defined, 740
major hormones and their actions, 741, 744
regulation of hormones secreted by, 741–742, 743
regulation of mammalian reproduction, 776, 779
regulation of sexual development, 747
Antheridium, 427
Anthers, 439
Anthocerophyta, 424
Anthoceros, 426
Anthocyanins, 73
Anthozoans, 478, 480
Anthrax, 384, 394
Anthropocene, 861–862
Anthropoids, 515
Antibiotic resistance
evolution of as a public health problem, 168–169, 467–468
“Methicillin resistant S. aureus”, 194, 213
Antibiotic resistance genes, 383
Antibiotics
effect on bacterial cell walls, 380–381
fungi and, 450, 468
phage therapy as an alternative, 399
from Streptomyces, 385
Antibodies
activation of defense mechanisms, 821–822
in the adaptive immune response, 810, 815–816
antigen binding, 819–820
defined, 810
mechanisms of diversity, 820–821
production by plasma cells, 819
specificity, 816
structure of, 819
See also Immunoglobulins
Anticoagulants, 37
Anticodon, 206–207
Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
actions of, 744
functions, 741
half-life, 739
urine formation and, 762–763, 764
Antidiuretic hormones, in insects, 747
Antifreeze proteins, 600
Antigenic determinants, 816
Antigens
binding by T cell receptors, 822, 823
binding to antibodies, 819–820
presentation by macrophages and dendritic cells, 817
presentation to T cells by MHC proteins, 822–823, 824
specificity, 816
vaccines and, 825–826
Antilocapra americana, 832, 901
Antiparallel strands, of DNA, 176–177
Antipodal cells, 575, 577
Antisense RNA, 263
Antrum, 773
Ants
number of species, 495
orientation by a “polarization compass,” 837
trail following behavior and path integration, 834, 835
See also Leaf-cutter ants
Anurans, 506, 507
Anus, 794, 795, 796
Aorta, 667, 668
Aortic bodies, 659
Aortic valve, 668
Apes, 515
APETALA1 gene, 580, 583
Aphids, 495, 552
Aphotic zone, 857
Apical complex, 406
Apical dominance, 562
Apical hook, 565–566
Apical meristems
of deciduous trees, 533
embryonic, 524
in primary growth, 527, 529, 530
transition to flowering, 579–580
Apical–basal axis, in plants, 523–524
Apicomplexans, 406, 415–416
Apis mellifera. See Honey bees
Aplysia, 713
Apodemes, 690
Apomixis, 585, 586–587
Apoplast, 547, 548, 553
Apoptosis
description of, 146–148
in hindlimb development, 290, 291
initiated by natural killer cells, 813
in morphogenesis, 284
in plant defense responses, 592
telomere length and, 184
Appalachian Mountains, 348
Appendages. See Jointed appendages/limbs
Appetite regulation, 639–640
Apple maggot fly, 350
Apple trees, 350
Aquaporins, 89–90, 546, 762–763, 764
I-4
Aquatic animals
ammonotelic, 755
countercurrent gas exchange, 650–651
water–salt balance in, 756–758
Aquatic biomes, 856–857
Aquatic ecosystems
eutrophication, 923, 925
factors affecting net primary productivity, 919
nitrogen cycling, 923
Aquifex, 385
Aquilegia formosa, 352, 353
Aquilegia pubescens, 352, 353
Arabidopsis
body axes, 523–524
floral organ development, 284, 285
florigen and flowering, 582, 583
genome characteristics, 244, 245
LEAFY mutant, 584
as a model organism, 6
photoreceptors, 568
phytochrome-mediated gene transcription, 569–570
vernalization, 584
Arachidonic acid, 57, 58
Arachnids, 492
Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi, 457, 459, 462, 542–543
Arceuthobium americanum, 544
Archaea
genome, 240, 387
key characteristics of, 388–389
principal groups, 388, 389–390
“Strain 121,” 388
Archaea (domain), 5, 370, 380
Archaen eon, 359, 360–361
Archaeopteris, 369
Archaeopteryx, 511
Archegonium, 427
Archenteron, 794, 795, 796, 797
Archosaurs, 336–337, 510–511
Arctic foxes, 674
Arctocephalus gazella, 782–783
Ardipithecines, 515
Arginine, 43
Argogorytes, 351
Argon-40, 358, 359
Aristolochia littoralis, 445
Armadillidium vulgare, 493
Armadillos, 514
ARR protein, 566
Arrow worms, 476, 480
Arteries
in closed circulatory systems, 662
control of blood flow, 663–664
countercurrent heat exchange, 674–675
direction of blood flow in, 665
structure and function, 673
Arterioles
blood pressure and blood flow through, 673–674
regulation of blood flow and, 663–664
structure and function, 663, 673
Arthrobotrys dactyloides, 456
Arthropods
appendages, 488
central nervous system, 724–725
chelicerates, 491–492
coelom, 480
compound eyes, 722
exoskeleton and skeletal muscle, 689–690
hemocyanin, 678
insects, 494–496, 497
key features, 491
leg evolution, 291–292
major subgroups, 476
myriapods, crustaceans, and hexapods, 492–494
open circulatory system, 664
relatives, 491
segmentation, 474, 475
Artificial gene constructs, 262
Artificial selection, 303–304
Asci, 462, 463
Asclepias syriaca, 596–597
Ascoma, 462, 463, 464
Ascomycota, 458, 459, 462–464
Ascopsores, 462, 463
Ascorbic acid, 682
Asexual reproduction
accumulation of deleterious mutations, 319
angiosperms, 585–587
animals, 769, 770
fungi, 458, 459
genetic constancy of offspring, 130
protists, 414
Asian apes, 515
Asian shore crab, 895
Asparagine, 43
Aspartic acid, 43
Aspen trees, 130, 890, 891
Aspergillus, 191
Aspergillus oryzae, 464
Aspergillus tamarii, 464
Aspirin, 37, 57–58
Asterias rubens, 499, 805
Asterozoans, 499
Astral microtubules, 135
Asynchronous muscle, 696
Atacama Desert, 598
Athens, 809
Athletes, muscle cell types and, 693
Atmospheres (atm), 645
Atmospheric circulation patterns, 850–851
Atmospheric gases
carbon dioxide and climate change, 361–362, 916, 927, 928, 932
greenhouse effect, 926–927
Atmospheric oxygen concentration
body size in flying insects and, 357, 365, 366, 374
during the Cambrian, 368
during the Carboniferous and Permian, 357, 373
changes through Earth’s history, 363–366
in the evolution of life, 3–4
during the Mesozoic, 373
during the Phanerozoic, 367
Atmospheric pressure, 545
Atomic number, 19
Atoms
Bohr model, 19–20
chemical bonds and the formation of molecules, 20–26
elements, 19
functional groups, 25–26
structure, 19
ATP production
in anaerobic cellular respiration, 115, 116
animal behavioral specializations and, 832–833
in animal cells, 617
chemiosmosis, 111–113
coupling of NADH oxidation to, 108, 111, 112
oxidative phosphorylation, 111, 112, 113
in photosynthesis, 122, 123
in slow oxidative and fast glycolytic cells, 693
ATP synthase, 111–112, 113
Atrazine, 13, 14, 15
Atria, 667, 668
Atrioventricular node, 669, 670
Atrioventricular valve, 668
Atta cephalotes, 882, 894
Auditory canal, 718
Auditory cortex, 715
Auditory nerve, 718
Auditory systems, 717–718, 719
Austin blind salamander, 507
Australasian biogeographic region, 858, 859
Australia
biogeography, 854, 855, 856
introduction of European rabbits, 768
Australian Dung Beetle Project, 909–910
Australopithecines, 515, 516
Australopithecus afarensis, 515, 516
Autism, 392
Autocrine signals, 95, 96
Autocrines, 736
Autoimmune diseases, 814, 816
Autoimmunity, 816
Autonomic effectors, 725
Autonomic nervous system (ANS)
enteric nervous system, 635, 636, 726
mammalian heartbeat, 670, 671
parasympathetic division, 725, 726
regulation of blood flow, 663–664
sympathetic division, 725, 726, 739
Autophagy, 71
Autopolyploidy, 350
Autosomes, 164
Autotrophs, 124, 538, 606, 889
Auxin
discovery of, 559–60
effects on plant growth and development, 562–563
interactions with cytokinins, 566
molecular mechanisms underlying the actions of, 563–564
polar transport, 561–562
structure and functions, 559
Auxin response element, 262
Avirulence (Avr) genes, 592, 602, 603
Axillary buds, 527
Axis
in the endocrine system, 742–743
See also Polarity
Axon hillocks, 707, 713
Axon terminals, 710
Axons
action potentials and (see Action potentials)
function in nervous control, 735
innervation of muscle fibers, 685, 686
location specificity in the mammalian brain, 729, 730
myelination, 702
neural basis of sensation and, 715
structure and function, 701
B
B cells
functions of, 817–818
humoral immune response and, 817, 819
immune deficiency disorders and, 824
interaction with T-helper cells, 823
mechanisms of antibody diversity, 820–821
production of antibodies in the effector phase, 821–822
B horizon, 540
B lymphocytes
diversity and clonal selection, 816, 817
functions, 811
specificity, 816
Bacillus, 384, 395
Bacillus (bacilli pl.), 381
Bacillus amyloliquifaciens, 254
Bacillus anthracis, 384, 394
Bacillus subtilis, 132
Bacillus thuringiensis, 269, 270, 384
Bacteria
action of antibiotics and, 213
in animal innate defenses, 812
antibiotic resistance, 467–468 (see also Antibiotic resistance)
biofilms, 390–391, 392
biological nitrogen fixation, 542, 543–544
bioluminescence, 378, 387, 399
in bioremediation, 271
chlamydias, 386–387
I-5
classification methods, 380–381
conjugation, 167–168
cyanobacteria, 385–386
drug resistance, 168–169
endosymbiosis in the evolution of eukaryotes, 402, 404
gene transfer by plasmids, 168
genetic transformation, 258
genome characteristics, 244
genomes, 240–243
hadobacteria, 385
high-GC Gram-positives, 384–385
hyperthermophilic, 385
industrial biotechnology and, 253
lateral gene transfer, 319
lateral transfer of antibiotic
resistance genes, 383
low-GC Gram positives, 384, 385
metabolic pathways, 394–395
microbiomes, 391–392
pathogenic, 393–394
proteobacteria, 387, 388
quorum sensing, 378, 391
roles in element cycling, 395–396
spirochetes, 386
sporulation, 220
transformation experiments, 174
Bacteria (domain), 5, 63, 370, 380
Bacterial conjugation, 167–168
Bacterial lipopolysaccharide, 813
Bacteriochlorophyll, 394, 395
Bacteriophage
phage λ, 259–260
phage T2, 174
phage T4, 397
phage T7, 332–334
phage therapy, 399
transformation experiments, 174
Bacteroids, 542
Baker’s yeast, 462, 464
Baldwin, Ian, 595
Bamboo, 585
Bamboo pit viper, 723
BamHI restriction enzyme, 254
Banded iron formations, 364
Banksia coccinea, 447
Banteng, 276
Bar-tailed godwits, 837–838
Bark, 534
Bark beetles, 931
Barklice, 495
Barley, “malting,” 560–561
Barnacles, 493, 494, 887, 888
Barr bodies, 228
Barrel cactus, 532
Barrier contraceptive methods, 781
Barriers to dispersal, 857–858
Basal lamina, 78
Basal metabolic rate (BMR), 609
Base pairs
in DNA, 177
vulnerability to mutation, 190–191
Baseodiscus cingulatus, 483
Bases
base pairing, 38–40, 41
in the structure of nucleic acids, 38
Basidiomata, 463, 464–465
Basidiomycota, 458, 459, 463, 464–465
Basidiospores, 463, 465
Basidium, 463, 465
Basilar membrane, 717–718, 719
Basking shark, 630
Basophils, 811
Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis, 454, 455
Bats
key features, 512, 513
number of living species, 514
speciation by centric fusion, 346, 347
wing evolution, 292–293, 328
Bayer company, 37
BD model, of population size, 866–867, 876
Bdelloid rotifers, 482
Beagle (HMS), 299–300
Beal, W. J., 434
Beauveria bassiana, 468
Beavers, 890
Beer, 105, 126
Beer brewing, 560–561
Bees
breathing system, 654
effect of agriculture on diversity of, 914
number of species, 495
See also Bumblebees, Carpenter bees, Honey bees
Beetles
diversity in, 496, 497
grazers of milkweed, 597
number of species, 469, 495
See also Dung beetles
Begging behavior, 828
Behavior. See Animal behavior; Social behavior
Behavioral imprinting, 830–831
Behavioral isolation, 351–352, 353
Behavioral regulation, of body temperature, 613
Belding’s ground squirrel, 839
Belgian Blue cattle, 251
Bengtsson, Jan, 877
Benthic zone, 857
Benzer, Seymour, 207, 829
Benzopyrene, 190, 191
Berthold, Arnold, 733
Bertholletia excelsa, 894
Beta (β) cells, 640
Beta (β) pleated sheet, 44, 46
Beta thalassemia, 202
β-Adrenergic receptors, 739
β-Carotene, 269
β-Catenin, 799
Beyer, Peter, 269
Bicarbonate ions
in blood, 678
in digestion, 637–638, 639
Biceps, 716
Bicoid protein, 286
BIDE model, of population size 876
Bieber, Claudia, 625
Biennials, 579
Bilateral symmetry
ambulacrarians, 498
in animals, 473
Bilaterians, 472, 474–475
Bilayers, structure, 30, 31
Bile, 638, 639
Bile salts, 638
Bill size, effect of disruptive selection on, 312
Bimodal character distribution, 312
Binary fission, 130, 132, 133
Bindin, 353
Binomial nomenclature, 4–5, 338–341
Biochemical systems, enzymes and the regulation of, 53–57
Biocontrol, of mosquitoes, 468
Biofilms, 390–391, 392, 846
Biogenic amines, 711
Biogeochemical cycles
carbon cycle, 924, 925
defined, 920
global climate and, 926–928, 929
impact of human activities on, 921–922, 923, 924–926
interdependence of, 926
nitrogen cycle, 922–923, 924, 925
overview, 920–921
phosphorus cycle, 926
sulfur cycle, 926
water cycle, 921–922
Biogeographic regions, 858–861
Biogeography
barriers to dispersal, 857–858
continental drift and, 858–861
defined, 846
human impact on, 861–862
impact of physical geography on, 854–857
phylogenetics and, 859–861
Bioinformatics, 237
Biological classification, 338–341
Biological clocks, 620–622, 722
Biological determinism, 829–830
Biological membranes
active transport, 91–92
components and properties of, 83–87
dynamic nature of, 86–87
fluid mosaic model, 83
fluidity, 84–85
movement of macromolecules via vesicles, 93–95
passive transport across, 87–91
selective permeability, 87
thickness, 84
See also Cell membrane(s)
Biological nitrogen fixation, 542, 543–544
Biological organization
characteristics of biological systems, 7–8
chemical energy inputs to maintain, 606–607
hierarchical levels of, 6–7
systems analysis, 8–9
Biological species concept, 344–345
Biological systems, 7–9 (see also Systems, Systems analysis)
Bioluminescence, 378, 387, 399, 418
Bioluminescent proteins, 387
Biomass, 903, 904
Biomes
aquatic, 856–857
defined, 854
terrestrial, 854–856
Bioremediation, 113, 271, 466
See also Phytoremediation
Biosphere, 7, 846, 920
Biota, 367
Biotechnology
applications, 265–270
artificial gene constructs, 262
bioremediation, 271
DNA microarrays and patterns of gene expression, 264–265
gene inactivation by homologous recombination, 262–263
genomic libraries and cDNA libraries, 261–262
historical overview, 253
methods with recombinant DNA, 254–258
public concerns about, 270
RNA interference, 263–264
synthetic DNA, 262
transformation, 258–261
Biotic components of environment, 846
Biotic interchange, 859, 861
Biotin, 52, 628
Bipalium everetti, 481
Bipedal locomotion, 516
Bipolar cells, 720, 721
Birch, Charles, 872
Birds
accessory reproductive organs, 770
action of prolactin, 739
adjustments of migratory behavior, 828
begging behavior, 828
breathing system, 652–653
circulatory system, 666
effect of disruptive selection on bill size, 312
evolution, 508, 510, 511
excretion of nitrogenous wastes, 756
foot webbing in development, 290, 291
forebrain evolution, 727–728
foregut fermentation, 316
gastrulation, 795, 796
key features, 510
learning and behavior, 831
major groups, 511
mechanisms of long-distance migrations, 837–838
metabolic rate, 511
I-6
nephrons and urine formation, 764
orientation by the Earth’s magnetic field, 837
perception of ultraviolet wavelengths, 723
relationship between metabolic rate and speed of flight, 608–609
salt glands, 754–755
species and diversity, 511, 512
sperm transfer in, 774
thermoregulation, 613–614
urine/plasma ratio, 754
wing evolution, 292–293, 328
Birth contractions, 620, 780
Birth weight, effect of stabilizing selection on, 311
Bison bison, 889
1,3-Bisphosphoglycerate, 110
Bithorax gene, 287, 288
Bivalents, 142, 143–144
Bivalves, 486, 487
Black-bellied seedcrackers, 312
“Black carbon,” 928
Black-legged ticks
life history, 867–868
life-history tradeoffs, 870
Lyme disease and, 864, 878, 880
Black spruce, 436
Black stem rust, 454
“Black urine,” 195
Blackberry, 444
Blackeye goby, 776
Bladders
swim bladders, 504
urinary, 695, 753
Blade, 531
Blastocladiomycota, 459
Blastocoel, 792, 794, 797
Blastocyst, 279, 793, 794
Blastocysts
implantation in the uterus, 777, 793, 794
secretion of chorionic gonadotropin in primates, 780
Blastodisc, 792
Blastomeres
defined, 790
in mosaic and regulative development, 791–792
types of cleavage, 790–791, 792–793
Blastopore, 472, 794–795
Blastulas
cell fates, 275
defined, 790
gastrulation in sea urchins, 794, 795
mosaic and regulative development, 791–792
types of cleavage, 790–791, 793
Blattodea, 495
Blending inheritance, 151
Bleu cheese, 464
Blood
complement proteins, 813
components of, 677
hormone concentration, 739–740
insulin and glucagon regulation of nutrient levels in, 640–641
respiratory gases and the control of breathing, 656, 658–659
transport of respiratory gases, 677–678
Blood clotting
anticoagulants, 37
hemophilia, 150
Blood flow
arteriolar control of, 663–664
blood pressure and the linear velocity of movement through the vascular system, 673–674
closed circulatory systems, 662–664
to the fetus, 780
fluid loss in capillaries, 675–676
mammalian cardiac cycle, 667–668
open circulatory systems, 664, 665
Blood pH, negative-feedback control of breathing, 656, 657, 659
Blood plasma
fluid compartments of the body and, 615
homeostasis, 610
regulation of composition and volume by the kidneys, 753
urine/plasma ratios, 753–754
urine produced from by the kidneys, 752–753, 760–764, 765
water–salt balance and, 751
Blood pressure
arterial elasticity and, 673
description of, 668
the linear velocity of movement through the vascular system and, 673–674
sepsis and, 814
Blood vessels
blood pressure and linear velocity of flow through, 673–674
closed circulatory systems, 662–664
countercurrent heat exchange, 674–675
direction of blood flow in, 665
fluid loss in capillaries, 675–676
major vessels in human circulation, 668
structure of, 673
systemic and breathing-organ circuits, 665–667
types and functions of, 673
See also individual vessel types
Blue crabs, 758, 782
Blue-green bacteria. See Cyanobacteria
Blue-light receptors, 568
Blue mussels, 895
Blue spiny lizards, 871, 872
Body cavities, 473, 474
Body fluids
properties of, 752
regulation by the kidneys, 752–755
Body insulation, 614
Body plans
appendages, 474
basic developmental patterns, 471–473
body cavity, 473
crustacean, 494
insect, 494
key features, 472–473
nervous systems, 474–475
origin and evolution of, 470–475
plant body (see Plant body)
protostomes, 480
segmentation, 473–474, 475
symmetry, 473
vertebrates, 501, 502
Body segmentation
in animal development, 800, 801
in fruit flies, 285–288
Body size
animal behavior and, 833, 834
effect of atmospheric oxygen concentrations on, 357, 365, 366, 374
metabolic rate and, 609
Body temperature
homeotherms, 610–611, 612–614
poikilotherms, 611–612, 613
of spiny lizard, 871
Bohemian waxwings, 723
Bohr model, 19–20
Bombina bombina, 354–355
Bombina variegata, 354–355
Bombus, 842
Bombycilla garrulus, 723
Bombyx, 782
Bone, 688–689
Bone marrow, multipotent stem cells, 278–279
Bone morphogenetic protein 4 (BMP4), 290, 291, 799
Bony fishes, hyposmotic regulators, 756–757
Booklice, 495
Boreal forest, 855
Borlaug, Norman, 555, 571
Borlaug Global Rust Initiative, 589
Borrelia, 864, 880
Borthwick, Harry, 569
Bottlenosed dolphins, 513
Botulism, 394
Boutons, 710
Bovine/porcine somatotropin, 267
Bowman’s capsule, 760–761, 765
Boyer, Herbert, 257
Brachiopods, 476, 480–481, 483
Brachystola magna, 497
Bracket fungi, 465
Brain
basis of animal behavior, 828
basis of sensation, 715
caffeine’s effects on, 102–103
in the central nervous system, 724, 724
control of breathing rhythm, 656, 657, 659
forebrain evolution in vertebrates, 727–728
glial cells, 701
localized function and mapped regions in mammals, 728–730, 731
neurulation, 797–800, 801
tracts, 701
Brain imaging, 729
Brain maps, 729, 730, 731
Brain size
evolution in, 727–728
in human evolution, 516
Brassica napus, 566
Brassica oleracea, 303–304, 535
Brassinosteroids, 559, 566
Brazil nuts, 894
BRCA1 gene, 162
Bread, 126
Breast cancer, 148, 162
Breast cancer therapy, “gene expression signatures” and, 264–265
Breathing
in animals without breathing organs, 648–649
bird lungs, 652–653
countercurrent gas exchange in gills, 650–651
defined, 646
at high elevations, 643
insect tracheal breathing systems, 653–654
with lungs or gills, 646–647
mammalian breathing system, 654–659
tidally ventilated lungs, 651–652
See also Respiratory gas exchange
Breathing-organ circuit
in amphibians and non-avian reptiles, 666–667
defined, 665
in fish, 665–666
in mammals and birds, 666
Breathing organs
bird lungs, 652–653
cocurrent and countercurrent gas exchange systems, 649–651
defined, 665
insect tracheal breathing systems, 653–654
mammalian breathing system, 654–659
structure and function of lungs and gills, 646, 647 (see also Gills; Lungs)
surface area of gas exchange membranes, 649
tidally ventilated lungs, 651–652
ventilation, 646–647
I-7
Breathing rhythm, 656, 657
Breeding seasons, 351, 352
Brevipalpus phoenicis, 492
Brewer’s yeast, 462, 464
Briareum, 417
Bristlecone pine, 437
Brittle stars, 499
Broca’s area, 728, 730, 828
Broccoli, 303
Bronchi, 654, 655
Brown, Patrick, 539
Brown adipose tissue, 614, 618
Brown algae, 408, 409
Brown-headed cowbirds, 884
Brown molds, 464
Brown surgeonfish, 505
Brussels sprouts, 303
Bryonia dioica, 532
Bryony vine, 532
Bryophyta, 424
Bryozoans, 476, 480–481, 481
Bt protein, 269, 270
Bubonic plague, 387, 394
Bud primordia, 530
Budding
asexual reproduction in animals, 769, 770
protists, 414
sac fungus yeasts, 464
Buds, 522
Bufo periglenes, 507
Bulbourethral glands, 780
Bulbs, 585
Bulk flow, 646
Bulk solutions, 702
Bumblebees, 842, 891
Burgess Shale fossils, 368
Bushmonkey flower, 440–441, 442
Butterflies
diversity in, 496, 497
heterozygote advantage, 316–317
interactions with plants, 894, 895
latitudinal gradient in species richness, 907
number of species, 495
See also Edith’s checkerspot butterfly
C
C horizon, 540
Cabbage, 303
Cacti, 447, 598
Cactus finch, 868, 869
Caddisflies, 495, 497
Cadmium-tolerant plants, 601–602
Caecilians, 506, 507
Caenorhabditis elegans
discovery of microRNAs, 230
genome characteristics, 244–245
induction during vulval development, 281–282
as a model organism, 488
programmed cell death during morphogenesis, 284
zygote polarity, 280
Caffeine, 82, 102–103
Caiman crocodilus, 510
Caimans, 510
Calcareous sponges, 476, 477
Calcitonin, 744
Calcium/Calcium ions
in animal nutrition, 629, 682
bone and, 688, 689
in muscle contraction, 686, 687, 688
Calcium channels, at neuromuscular junctions, 710
Calcium oxalate, 593
Calcium phosphate, 688
California plantain, 878
Callinectes sapidus, 758, 782
Calories, 625, 626
Calvin, Melvin, 124
Calvin cycle, 124, 125
Camalexin, 591
“Cambrian explosion,” 368
Cambrian period, 360–361, 368, 369
Camembert cheese, 464
cAMP phosphodiesterase, 102, 103
cAMP response element (CRE), 232
Canavanine, 593, 596
Cancer therapies
chemotherapy, 148–149
“gene expression signatures” and, 264–265
hematopoietic stem cell transplantation, 278–279
Cancers
breast cancer, 148, 162
carcinogens and, 191
cell cycle regulation and, 148
cell division and, 129
cervical cancer, 129, 148
chemotherapy, 148–149
RNA retroviruses and, 398
Candida albicans, 454
Canis lupus, 890–891
Canis lupus familiaris. See Dogs
Cannon, Walter, 610
5’ Cap, 202, 230
Cape anteater, 340
Capillaries
blood pressure and blood flow through, 673–674
fluid loss in, 675–676
regulation of blood flow and, 663–664
structure and function, 663, 673
Capitellids, 805
Capsules, 64–65
Carapace, 494
Carbapenems, 169
Carbohydrases, 635
Carbohydrates
aerobic catabolism, 111–114
anaerobic catabolism, 115–116
defined, 27
digestion, 635–636, 638
as food molecules, 626
formation in photosynthesis, 119, 124–125
membrane carbohydrates, 83, 86
monosaccharides, 27
polysaccharides, 27–28
structure and function, 26, 27
Carbon
covalent bonding capacity, 22
electronegativity, 23
global cycle, 924–926
isotopes, 19
Carbon-14, 358
Carbon cycle, 924–926
Carbon dioxide
blood transport, 677
in the carbon cycle, 924, 925, 926
fixation in photosynthesis, 119, 124–125
gas exchange in plants, 550–551
global warming and climate change, 361–362, 916, 927, 928, 932
released in aerobic cellular respiration, 109
as a respiratory gas, 644 (see also Respiratory gases)
Carbon-fixation reactions, 119, 124–125
Carbonate, 924
Carbonic acid, 658–659
Carboniferous period
atmospheric oxygen levels, 365
flying insects, 357
history of life during, 372
key events during, 360–361
Carboxyl group
in amino acids, 42–43
in fatty acids, 29
structure and properties, 25
Carboxypeptidase B, 633, 634
Carcharodon carcharis, 504
Carcinogens, 191
Carcinus maenas, 805, 895
Cardiac cycle, 667–668
Cardiac ganglion, 671, 672
Cardiac muscle, 667, 695
See also Myocardium
Cardiac output, 667
Carduus nutans, 892
Caretta caretta, 838
Carnivores, 514, 889–890
Carnivorous plants, 544, 545
β-Carotene, 269
Carotid bodies, 659
Carpels
evolution, 440
in flower morphology, 574
function, 439
in pollination, 434
Carpenter bees, 892, 894
Carr, Archie, 838
Carrier proteins
for hormones, 740
of membranes, 89, 90, 91
Carrots, 275, 532
Carrying capacity
changes in, 874–876
intraspecific competition and an evolutionary increase in, 892, 893
Cartilage, 689
Cartilaginous fishes, 504
Casparian strip, 547–548
Caspases, 147, 148, 284
Cassowaries, 511
Castanea dentata, 891
Castor canadensis, 890
Castrati, 733
Castration, 733
Catabolic interconversions, 116–117
Catabolic reactions/pathways
aerobic catabolism of carbohydrates, 109–114
anaerobic catabolism of carbohydrates, 115–116
defined, 32
and flow of energy through communities, 903
linkage and integration with anabolism, 116–118
regulation by inducible systems, 219
in the release and reuse of cellular energy, 108
Cataglyphis, 834, 835, 837
Catalysts, 49
See also Enzymes
Catasetum, 420
Catasetum macrocarpum, 447–448
Catch, 696
Catch muscle, 696
β-Catenin, 799
Cations, 24–25
Cats
“point restriction” coat patterns, 160–162
tortoiseshell coat, 228
Cattle
ecological impact of grazing, 845, 862–863
effect of directional selection on horns, 311–312
evolution of foregut fermentation in, 315–316
microbiome, 392
pharming, 266–267
Caudal fins, 503, 504
Cauliflower, 303
Cave-dwelling fish, 294
CD4 receptor, 225
cDNA. See Complementary DNA
cDNA libraries, 261–262
CED-4, CED-5, CED-9 proteins, 284
Celestial navigation, 831
Cell body, of neurons, 701, 712
Cell cycle
cancer and, 148
chromosome segregation, 135, 136–137
cytokinesis, 135–137
DNA content during, 173
overview of the stages in, 133–134, 135, 136–137
prophase, 134–135
regulation of, 138–140
Cell cycle checkpoints, 139
Cell death
apoptosis, 146–148
necrosis, 146
Cell differentiation
I-8
changes in gene expression and, 279–282
differential gene transcription and, 282
reversibility, 275–276, 277
role of transcription factors in, 223–224
Cell division
in asexual reproduction, 130
binary fission, 130, 132, 133
cancer and, 129
defined, 130
meiosis, 140–146
mitosis and cytokinesis, 133–137
overview of necessary events in, 132
regulation of, 138–140
in sexual reproduction by meiosis, 130–131
Cell fates
changes in gene expression underlie determination and differentiation, 279–282
progressive restriction during development, 275
Cell-free extracts, 62
Cell junctions, 78–79
Cell membrane(s)
action potentials, 685, 700
of the archaea, 388–389
caffeine and, 82
depolarization and hyperpolarization, 706
eukaryotic cells, 66, 67
function in animals, 616
membrane potentials, 702–706
in plant induced defenses, 594
prokaryotic cells, 64
of sensory receptor cells, 715
signal transduction pathways and cell signaling, 95–98 (see also Signal transduction pathways)
signaling in plant induced defenses, 594
structure and function, 62–63
See also Biological membranes
Cell migrations, gastrulation, 794–797
Cell plate, 136, 137
Cell potency, 275
Cell signaling
chemical signals, 95–96
overview, 95
receptors, 96–98
types of cellular responses to signals, 99
See also Signal transduction pathways
Cell theory, 61
Cell walls
bacterial, 380–381
plant cells, 67, 77 (see also Plant cell walls)
plant development and, 522–523
prokaryotic cells, 64–65
Cells
cell size and the surface area-to-volume ratio, 61–62
cell theory, 61
cellular specialization in the evolution of life, 4
extracellular structures, 77–79
features of eukaryotic cells, 63, 65–73 (see also Eukaryotic cells)
features of prokaryotic cells, 63–65 (see also Prokaryotes)
fossilized, 80
methods of studying, 62, 63
in the origin and evolution of life, 2–3
protocells, 80
structure and function of the cell membrane, 62–63 (see also Cell membrane[s])
synthetic, 60
See also Animal cells; Plant cells
Cellular immune response
AIDS and, 824–825
antigen binding to T cell receptors, 822, 823
antigen presentation to T cells by MHC proteins, 822–823, 824
death of the targeted cell, 823–824
effector T cells in, 822
phases of, 817–818
suppression by regulatory T cells, 824
Cellular respiration
aerobic, 109–114
anaerobic, 115–116
linkage to photosynthesis, 118
Cellular slime molds, 413–414
Cellular specialization, in the evolution of life, 4
Cellular therapy, expression of transcription factors and, 223–224
Cellulose, 28
Cement manufacture, 928, 932
Cenozoic era, 360–361, 373–374
Centaurea solstitialis, 874, 891
Centipedes, 493
Central nervous system (CNS)
in arthropods, 724–725
bilaterians, 474–475
defined, 724
neurosecretory cells, 736–737
spinal reflexes, 726–727
in vertebrates, 724, 724
Central sulcus, 728
Centralization, 723–724
Centrifugation, 62, 63
Centrioles, 66, 135, 789
Centromeres
in meiosis, 141, 142
in mitosis, 134, 137, 141
Centrosomes
description of, 135
in mitosis, 135, 136
role in animal development, 788
Cephalization, 473, 724
Cephalopods, 486, 487
Cercozoans, 409
Cerebellum, 728
Cerebral cortex, 728–730, 731
Cerebral hemispheres
evolution in vertebrates, 727–728
localized function and mapped regions in mammals, 728–730, 731
Cervical cancer, 129, 148
Cervix, 777
Cervus canadensis, 889, 890–891
Cervus elaphus, 833
Cetaceans, 514
Cetartiodactyla, 514
Cetonia aurata, 497
Cetorhinus maximus, 630
Chaetodon semilarvatus, 827
Chagas’ disease, 411
Chain, Ernst, 450
Chakrabarty, Ananda, 253
Chalfie, Martin, 325
Channel proteins, 89–90, 703
“Chaos” amoeba, 412
Chara vulgaris, 423
Characters
ancestral and derived traits, 328
defined, 151
evolutionary reversals, 328
heritability, 162
Chargaff, Erwin, 176
Chargaff’s rule, 176, 177
Chasmosaurus belli, 371
Cheese, 464, 465
Cheetahs, 832
Chelicerae, 491
Chelicerates, 476, 491–492, 518
Chelonoidis nigra abingdonii, 509
Chemical bonds
covalent, 20–23
defined, 20
Chemical building blocks
animals’ need for, 606–607
of carbohydrates, 27
food as source of, 627–629
of lipids, 29
of nucleic acids, 38, 179
of proteins, 43
See also Matter; Matter as related to energy
Chemical energy
animal need for, 606–607
animal storage compounds, 626–627
flow through communities, 904
from food, 625–626
Chemical reactions
catalyzed, 49–50
exergonic and endergonic, 106
metabolism and, 32
overview, 31
Chemical signals/signaling
in nervous and endocrine control, 734–736
in plant induced defenses, 594
scales of distance and, 735–736
types of, 95–96
Chemical synapses
description of, 709–710
neuromuscular junctions, 710–711
Chemical weathering, 540
Chemiosmosis, 111–113, 114
Chemoautotrophs, 394, 395, 396, 854, 890, 919
Chemoheterotrophs, 394, 395
Chemoreceptors, 716–717
Chemotherapy, 148–149
Chernobyl nuclear accident, 602
Chestnut, 891
Chestnut blight, 464
Chiasmata, 142, 144
Chickens, loss of foot webbing in development, 290, 291
Chilling injury, 600
Chimaeras, 504
Chimpanzees
evolutionary relationship to humans, 42
immunodeficiency viruses, 334, 335
in primate evolution, 515
skull growth, 516, 517
Chipmunks, 864
Chiroptera, 514
Chitin, 488
Chitinase, 591
Chitons, 485, 486
Chlamydia psittaci, 387
Chlamydias, 386–387
Chlamys varia, 486
Chlorella, 6
Chloride ions
guard cell function in plants, 551
removal during urine formation, 762–763
Chlorine, electronegativity, 23
Chlorocebus, 839, 840
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), 191
Chlorophyll
absorption and action spectra, 120
absorption of light, 121–122
light-harvesting complexes, 121
and NPP maps, 917
photosystems I and II, 122, 123
structure, 120–121
Chlorophyll a, 385, 421
Chlorophyll α, 120–121
Chlorophyll β, 120–121
Chlorophytes, 421, 422, 423
Chloroplasts
carbon-fixation reactions, 119, 124–125
chemiosmosis in, 113
endosymbiosis in the evolution of, 385, 402, 404–405
in the evolution of eukaryotic cells, 4
genetic material and cytoplasmic inheritance, 166–167
photosystem organization and function, 121–123
structure and function, 67, 72
Choanocytes, 471, 476
Choanoflagellates, 471, 472
Cholecalciferol, 682
Cholecystokinin (CCK), 639
I-9
Cholera, 387, 394, 638–639
Cholesterol
in membranes, 83, 84
steroid hormones and, 738
uptake by receptor endocytosis, 94–95
Chondrichthyans, 503–504
Chordates
key features, 500
lancelets and tunicates, 500–501
major subgroups, 476
organogenesis and neurulation in, 797–801
See also Vertebrates
Chordin, 799
Chorioallantoic membrane, 803
Chorioallantoic placenta, 803
Chorion, 803
Chorionic gonadotropin (CG), 780
Chorionic villus, 794
Chromatids
distinguished from chromosomes, 135
See also Sister chromatids
Chromatin
euchromatin and heterochromatin, 228
in the eukaryotic nucleus, 68
remodeling, 226–227
Chromium, 629
Chromodoris kuniei, 487
Chromoplasts, 72
Chromosomal rearrangements, 313
“Chromosomal theory of inheritance,” 173
Chromosomes
centric fusion and speciation in bats, 346, 347
condensation, 134–135
crossing over and independent assortment in meiosis, 140, 142–145
distinguished from chromatids, 135
in the eukaryotic nucleus, 68
gene locus, 162
genetic linkage and recombination, 162–164
homologous pairs, 131 (see also Homologous pairs)
identified as DNA, 173
meiotic errors, 145–146
mutations, 188–189
in organelles, 166–167
origins of replication, 180, 181 (see also DNA replication)
reduction of chromosome number in meiosis, 140, 141, 142
replication and segregation in binary fission, 132, 133
replication and segregation in mitosis, 133–135, 136–137
in sexual reproduction, 130, 131, 132
spatial organization of developmental genes, 289
telomeres, 183–184
Chthamalus stellatus, 887, 888
Chymotrypsin, 633, 634
Chytridiomycota, 459
Chytrids
characteristics of, 460
life cycle, 461
major groups, 459
in the phylogeny of the fungi, 458
Cicadas, 495, 868
Cichlids, 343, 352
Cigarette smoke, 190, 191
Cilia
lophotrochozoans, 481
structure and function, 74–75
Ciliates, 406–407
Cingulata, 514
Circadian clocks, 620–622, 722, 836
Circadian rhythms, entrainment in plants, 570
Circannual clocks, 621, 622, 784
Circulatory systems
in amphibians and non-reptile birds, 666–667
animal need for oxygen transport, 617
closed systems, 662–664
components and function of, 662
coronary circulatory system, 670–671
in fish, 661, 665–666
hearts, 667–672 (see also Hearts)
lymphatic system, 676
in mammals and birds, 666
open systems, 664, 665
systemic and breathing-organ circuits, 665
transport of respiratory gases, 677–678
vascular system, 673–676
Circumpolar Current, 852
Cirsium canescens, 892
Cirsium undulatum, 892
Cisternae, 70
Citrate, 118
Citric acid cycle, 109, 111, 117
Clade, 327
Cladonia subtenuis, 456
Clam worms, 475
Clams
catch muscle, 696
description of, 487
hydrostatic skeleton, 691
Class I MHC proteins, 822–823, 824
Class II MHC proteins, 822–823, 824
Classes, 339
Clathrin, 94
Clavelina dellavallei, 501
Clay, 540
Cleavage
effects of yolk on, 792
in placental mammals, 792–793
types of, 790–791
Climate
atmospheric circulation patterns and, 850–851
biogeochemical cycles and, 926–928, 929
climate diagrams, 853
defined, 362, 849
ocean circulation patterns and, 851–852
and terrestrial biomes, 854–856
variation in solar energy input and, 849, 850
Climate change
addressing through science and international cooperation, 931–932
atmospheric carbon dioxide and, 916, 927, 928, 928, 932
from burning fossil fuels, 361–362
changes in species composition and, 902, 903
impact on community composition, 930–931
impact on life histories and species interactions, 929–930, 931
impact on spiny lizards, 871, 872
impact on the global water cycle, 922
impact on weather events, 931
role of human activities in, 928
through Earth’s history, 361–362
See also Global warming
Clitoris, 746
“Cloacal kiss,” 774
Clonal lineages, 414
Clonal selection, 816, 817
Clones, asexual reproduction and, 130, 585–587
Cloning
of animals, 276, 277
of plants, 275–276
Closed circulatory systems, 662–664
Closed systems, 876, 920–921
Clostridium, 384
Clostridium acetylbutylicum, 253
Clostridium botulinum, 394
Clostridium tetani, 394
Clotting factor, 150
Clotting factor gene, 169
Club fungi, 453
characteristics of, 459, 462
sexual reproduction, 463, 464–465
Club mosses, 429, 431
Cnidarians
key features of, 476, 478–480
nerve nets, 723
CO gene, 582, 583
Coal
formation of, 429
See also Fossil fuels
Coat color
epistasis in dogs, 160, 161
hierarchy of dominance in rabbits, 158–159
“point restriction” patterns, 160–162
Coated pits, 94
Cobalamin, 628
Cobalt, 629
Cocaine, 454
Coccus (cocci pl.), 381
Cochlea, 717–718, 719
Cockroaches, 495
Cocoa, 454
Cocurrent gas exchange, 649–650
Cocurrent systems, 649
Coding regions, 199–201
Coding strand, in DNA expression, 197
CODIS database, 250
Codominance, 159–160
Codons
binding of anticodon to, 206–207
genetic code, 203–206
Coelacanths, 505
Coelom
in arthropods and mollusks, 480
in coelomate animals, 473, 474
formation of, 795, 796
peritoneal cavity and, 800
in protostomes, 480
Coelomates, 473, 474
Coenocyte, 412
Coenocytic hyphae, 451
Coenzyme A (CoA), 52, 110–111
Coenzymes
as enzyme cofactors, 52
linkage of cellular respiration to photosynthesis, 118
See also Adenosine triphosphate; Flavin adenine dinucleotide; Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide
Coevolution, plant–animal interactions, 441–442, 894, 895 (see also Reciprocal adaptations)
Coexistence of interacting species. See Rarity advantage; Species coexistence
Cofactors, of enzymes, 52
Coffea arabica, 898, 914
Coffea canephora, 898
Coffea eugenioides, 898
Coffee
caffeine and, 82
cultivation of, 898, 900, 914
Coffroth, Mary Alice, 417
Cohen, Stanley, 257
Cohesion, 23–24
Cold-hardening, 600
Coleochaete, 423
Coleochaetophytes, 421, 422, 423
Coleoptera, 495
Coleoptiles, 557, 561–562
Colias, 316–317
Colistin, 169
Collagen, 77, 78, 688
Collar, of hemichordates, 499, 500
Collecting ducts, 763–764, 765
Collenchyma, 525
Colon, 638–639
Colonial animals, 481
I-10
Colonization (see also Immigration)
conserving community diversity and, 911–912
by Edith’s checkerspot butterfly, 865
impact on ecological communities, 900–901
theory of island biogeography, 907
Colony-stimulating factor, 267
Color blindness, red–green, 166
Colugos, 514
Columba livia, 304
Columbines, 352, 353
Comanthina schlegeli, 499
Comb jellies, 477–478
Combined DNA Index System (CODIS) database, 250
Commensalism
defined, 883
effect on fitness, 883, 884
effect on species, 886
Common cactus finch, 868, 869
Common carotid artery, 668
Common iliac artery and vein, 668
Communities
animal behavior and, 827
assembly of, 899–900
coffee cultivation and, 898, 900, 914
defined, 846, 899
effects of structure on function, 903–906
goods and services provided by, 909–910
in the hierarchical structure of ecosystems, 7
impact of global climate change on community composition, 930–931
issues in delineating, 899
turnover in species composition, 900–903
Community function
conservation strategies, 909–913
energy flux and, 903–904
species diversity and, 904–906
Companion cells, 526
Comparative biology, phylogenetic trees and, 327–328
Comparative experiments, 13, 15
Comparative genomics
overview, 238
prokaryotes, 240–241
Compartments
in biogeochemical cycles (see Biogeochemical cycles)
in ecosystems, 920
fluid compartments in the animal body, 615–616
Competition
effects on fitness, 883
See also Interspecific competition; Intraspecific competition
Competitive inhibitors, 54, 55
Complement proteins, 813, 822
Complementary base pairing, 41, 178, 179
Complementary DNA (cDNA), 261–262, 398
Complete cleavage, 790, 792, 793
Complete metamorphosis, 495
Components, of biological systems, 7
Composting, 271
Compound eyes, 722
Compound umbels, 440
Computational models, 9
Concurrent systems, 649
Condensation reactions, 26
Conditional mutations, 187
Condoms, 781
Conducting airways, 654, 655
Conducting system, of the heart, 670
Condylura cristata, 699, 730, 731
Cone cells, 720, 721, 723
Cones (reproductive structure), 437, 438
Conformers, 609–610
Conformity
defined, 610
energy costs, 610
hibernation and, 614–615
Conidia, 458, 464, 465
Coniferophyta, 424
Conifers
characteristics of, 436
life cycle, 437–438
Conjugation
in bacteria, 167–168
in protists, 414, 415
Connell, Joseph, 887
Consensus sequences, 202
Conservation biology, 878–880, 912
Conservation ecology, 862, 891–892
Conservation tillage, 553–554
Conservative replication, 179
Constant region, 819
Constitutive genes, 217, 222
Constitutive plant defenses, 590, 593–594
Consumer–resource interactions
effects on consumer and resource species, 886
effects on fitness, 883–884
evolutionary arms race, 892, 894
interaction webs and, 889, 890
Continental drift, 360–361, 362, 858–861
Contraception
contraceptive methods, 781–782
in human population control, 876
Contractile ring, 135, 137
Contractile vacuoles, 73, 407
Contraction, 682
See also Muscle contraction
Control mechanisms, in animals, 619–622
Control systems, 619–622, 734–736
Controlled experiments, 13, 14
Controlled variable, 619
Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES), 932
Convergent evolution
biomes and, 854
defined, 328
phylogenetic analyses, 336, 337
Convergent molecular evolution, 314–316
Copepods, 493
Copper
as an enzyme cofactor, 52
in animal nutrition, 629
Copulation, 777
Coral bleaching, 416, 417
Coral reef fish, 827
Coral reefs, 856
Corals
asexual reproduction, 769, 770
description of, 478–480
dinoflagellate endosymbionts, 416, 417
fluorescent proteins, 325
larvae, 805
symbiosis with algae, 631
Cordite, 253
Corepressors, 219
Coriolis effect, 851
Cork, 533–534
Cork cambium, 527, 533–534
Corn
domestication, 534–535
flowers, 574
hybrid vigor, 160, 586
induced defenses against herbivores, 594, 595–596
Corn lily (Veratrum californicum), 787
Cornea, 719, 720
Corneal lens, 722
Corolla, 439
Corona (of rotifers), 482
Coronary artery disease, 670–671
Coronary circulatory system, 670–671
Coronavirus, 397
Corpora allata, 748
Corpus luteum, 779
Corpus luteum of pregnancy, 779–780
Corpus luteum of the cycle, 779
Cortex
roots, 528
shoots, 530
Corticotropin-releasing hormone, 743
Cortisol
half-life, 739
negative feedback regulation, 743
structure, 738
Corynebacterium diphtheriae, 394
Coryphopterus nicholsii, 776
Cosmic radiation, 191
Cost–benefit approach, to species interactions, 842
Cotyledons, 443, 524, 556, 557
Coumarins, 594
Countercurrent gas exchange
description of, 649, 650
in gills, 650–651
Countercurrent heat exchange, 674–675, 678–679
Countercurrent multiplication, 763, 765
Countercurrent systems, 649
Covalent bonds
in allosteric enzymes, 54–55
formation and properties, 20–23
CpG islands, 228
Crabapple, 447
Crabs
as predators on mussels, 895
“pinching” claws, 690
sperm storage in females, 782
sperm transfer in, 774
“Craniates,” 502
Crayfish
circulatory system, 664, 665
excretion of nitrogenous wastes, 755
hearts, 667
stretch receptor cells, 716
CRE (cAMP response element), 232
CREB (cyclic AMP response element binding protein)
gene regulation and alcoholism, 215, 232
histone acetylation and, 227
long-term memory and, 232
Crenarchaeota, 388, 389
Cretaceous period
history of life during, 371, 373
key events during, 360–361
meteorites and mass extinctions, 363, 364
Crichton, Michael, 172
Crick, Francis, 176–177, 178, 302
Crickets, 495
Crinoids, 499
Cristispira, 386
Crocodilians, 510, 775
Crocuta crocuta, 833, 834
Crop (digestive organ), 316, 636
Crop rotation, 553
Cross-bridges, 685
Crossing over, 143–144, 162–164
Crown gall, 387, 388
Crucella, 410
Crustaceans
description of, 492–494
hearts, 667, 671–672
number of species, 476
undiscovered living species, 518
Crustose lichens, 456
Cryptochromes, 568
Crystalline cone, 722
Ctenes, 477
Ctenophores, 475, 476, 477–478
Cultured animal cells, genetic transformation, 258
Current, 702, 704
Cuticle
of ecdysozoans, 487–488
of plants, 424, 525, 531
Cuttings, 587
I-11
Cyanide, 596
Cyanobacteria
cycling of oxygen and, 396
description of, 385–386
endosymbiosis in the evolution of the chloroplast, 404
impact on atmospheric oxygen, 364–365
as a photoautotroph, 394
stromatolites, 4
Cycadophyta, 424
Cycads, 436, 436
Cyclic AMP (cAMP)
CREB-gene regulation and alcoholism, 215
discovery as a second messenger, 99, 100
in epinephrine-activated glycogen breakdown, 100, 101
formation of, 101
Cyclic electron transport, 123
Cyclin-dependent kinases (CDKs), 138–140, 282
Cyclins
breakdown, 232
control of the cell cycle, 138–140
Cyclooxygenase, 57–58
Cyclopamine, 787, 806
Cyclopia, 294
Cyclops. See Holoprosencephaly
Cyclops strenus, 493
Cyclostomes, 502
Cyperus papyrus, 521
Cysteine, 43, 44
Cytochalasin B, 76
Cytokines, 813, 819
Cytokinesis
in binary fission, 132, 133
cell division and, 132
in eukaryotic cells, 133, 134, 135–137
plant morphogenesis and, 522–523
Cytokinins, 559, 566, 567
Cytoplasm, prokaryotic cells, 64
Cytoplasmic determinants, 280, 789, 790
Cytoplasmic inheritance, 166–167
Cytoplasmic polarity, 280
Cytoplasmic segregation, 280
Cytoplasmic streaming, plasmodial slime molds, 412–413
Cytosine
base pairing, 38–40, 41
deamination, 189, 190
in DNA, 176, 177
DNA methylation, 227–229
in DNA replication, 179
structure, 38
vulnerability to mutation, 190–191
Cytoskeleton
cilia and flagella, 74–75
cytoplasmic segregation in the egg and, 280
eukaryotic cells, 66
in the evolution of the eukaryotic cell, 403
experimental manipulations, 75–76
functions, 73
intermediate filaments, 73–74
microfilaments, 73, 74
microtubules, 74–75
prokaryotic cells, 65
Cytosol, prokaryotic cells, 64
Cytotoxic T (TC) cells
AIDS and, 824
cellular immune response, 823–824
functions of, 817–818, 818
regulation by Tregs, 824
D
Daddy longlegs (Leiobunum rotundum), 492
Daffodils (Narcissus sp.), 446
Dalton, John, 19
Dalton (Da), 19
Damselflies, 495
Dandelions, 442, 444
Daphnia, 618, 877 (see also Water fleas)
Daphnia pulex, 875
Darwin, Charles
artificial selection and, 304
description of natural selection, 10
development of evolutionary theory, 299–301
on the evolution of eyes, 273
on hybrid vigor, 160
influence of Thomas Malthus on, 876
on multiplicative growth, 873
orchids and, 420, 447
on sexual selection, 306
on traits that benefit another species, 895
Darwin’s finches
allopatric speciation, 348, 349
importance of behavior in maintaining species, 841
interspecific competition and evolution, 892, 894
intraspecific competition and evolution in beak size, 892, 893
song learning behavior, 831
Data, 14
Date palms, 446
Daucus carota, 440, 532
Daughter chromosomes, 135, 137
“Dead zones,” 923, 925
Deamination, 189, 190
Decapods, 493
Decomposers
in biogeochemical cycling, 921
saprobic fungi, 453
in trophic interactions, 889, 890
Deep-sea hydrothermal vents, 390, 396, 856
Deepwater Horizon oil spill, 271
Defensins, 812, 813
Deficiency diseases, 628–629
Definitive urine, 760
Degraded habitats, restoration strategies, 912, 913
Dehydration, 759–760
Dehydration response element (DRE), 224, 225
Deinococcus, 385
Delayed implantation, 782–783
Deleterious mutations
asexual reproduction and Muller’s ratchet, 319
elimination by natural selection, 305
elimination by sexual recombination, 319
Deletions, 188–189, 313
Demethylase, 228, 229
Demography, 867
Demosponges, 476, 477
Denaturation, 45–46
Dendrites, 701, 712
Dendritic cells, 811, 817
Dendroctonus ponderosae, 931
Denitrification, 922, 923
Denitrifiers, 395
Density dependence, 873–874 (see also Intraspecific competition)
Dental plaque, 390, 391
Deoxygenation, 678
Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
ancient, 172, 192
base sequences reveal evolutionary relationships, 41–42
circumstantial and experimental evidence as the genetic material, 173–177
coding regions and introns, 199–201
complementary base pairing, 38–40, 41
consensus sequences, 202
encoding and expression of information, 9, 40–41, 42, 178
histone modification and chromatin remodeling, 226–227
mechanisms of antibody diversity, 820–821
mutations, 178, 186–191, 312–313 (see also Mutations)
nucleic acid hybridization, 200–201
nucleotide structure, 38
phylogenetic analyses and, 331–332
quantification by staining, 173
restriction enzymes, 254–255, 256
“sticky ends” and “blunt ends,” 255, 256
structure–function relationship, 177–178 (see also DNA structure)
synthetic, 60, 262
transcription, 197–202
Deoxyribonucleoside triphosphates (dNTPs), 180, 185, 235–236
Deoxyribose, 27, 38, 41, 177
Depolarization
in action potentials, 707–708
defined, 706
Derived trait, 328
Dermal tissue system
description of, 524, 525
primary meristem creating, 527
roots, 528
Dermaptera, 495
Dermoptera, 514
Descent with modification, 300
Desert animals
kangaroo rats as, 885
urine/plasma ratio of mammals, 754
water–salt balance, 759–760
Desert annuals, 597
Desert grasslands, 855
Desmosomes, 78, 79
Determinate growth, 526
Determination
changes in gene expression and, 279–282
cytoplasmic polarity, 280
in development, 274
inducers and induction, 280–282
relationship to differentiation, 275
Determinism, 829–830
Detoxification enzymes, 618
Deuterostomes
chordates, 500–501 (see also Vertebrates)
cleavage, 791
defined, 472
echinoderms, 498–499
gastrulation and coloem development, 796, 797
hemichordates, 499–500
key features, 497–498
larval stage, 804–805
major clades, 498
summary of living members of major groups, 476
Development
changes in gene expression underlie cell fate determination and differentiation, 279–282
defined, 274
mechanisms in morphogenesis, 283–288
phylogenetic analyses and, 331, 332
processes and stages in animals and plants, 274–275
progressive restriction of cell fates, 275
reversibility of cell differentiation, 275–276, 277
stem cells, 276–279
See also Animal development; Plant growth and development
Developmental genes
evolution and, 291–293
gap genes, 286, 287
Hox genes, 286, 287–288
I-12
maternal effect genes, 286, 287
organ identity genes, 284, 285
pair rule genes, 286, 287
segment polarity genes, 287
segmentation genes, 286–287
similarity in distantly related organisms, 288–289
spatial organization on chromosomes, 289
Devil rays, 630
Devonian period, 360–361, 369, 372
d’Herelle, Felix, 399
Diadophis punctatus, 509
Diadumene leucolena, 479
Diaphragm (muscle), 655, 656, 657
Diaphragms (contraceptive method), 781
Diastole, 667, 668, 669
Diatomaceous earth, 418
Diatoms
features of, 408
fossil fuels and, 417
as primary producers, 415
red tides, 416
sedimentary rocks and, 418
Dichotomous branching, 429
Dictyostelium discoideum, 413
Didelphis virginiana, 513
Didinium, 887
Didinium nasutum, 407
Diet
gut microbiome and, 847
See also Food
Differential gene transcription, 282
Differentiation
changes in gene expression and, 279–282
defined, 797
in development, 274
of mesoderm, 800–801
of the neural tube, 797–800, 801
relationship to determination, 275
role of transcription factors in, 223–224
See also Cell differentiation
Diffusion
compared to active transport, 92
defined, 87
facilitated (see Facilitated diffusion)
of respiratory gases, 644–646
simple diffusion, 87–88
through air and water, 647–648
Diffusion coefficient, 645
Digestion
defined, 633
digestive abilities and the nutritional value of food, 633–635
digestive phenotypic plasticity, 635
endocrine control of, 639
evolution of digestive abilities, 634–635
in the midgut, 637–638
Digestive enzymes, 633–634, 635–636, 637
Digestive systems
digestive abilities and the nutritional value of foods, 632–635
gut microbiome and, 631–632, 641, 846, 847, 848
levels of organization, 616–617
overview, 632–633
principal functions of, 633
smooth muscle, 695, 696
Digestive vacuole, 407
Digits (phalanges), 292–293
Dihydropyridine receptor, 687
Dihydroxyacetone phosphate, 116
Dikarya, 462–465
Dikaryon, 462
Dinoflagellates
ecosystem importance, 418
as endosymbionts, 416, 417
features of, 406
red tides, 401, 416
tertiary endosymbiosis and the acquisition of chloroplasts, 405
Dinosaurs, 510
Dioecious species, 440, 574, 575, 576
Dionaea, 544, 545
Diphtheria, 394
Diploblastic animals, 471–472
Diploids, 131, 132, 152
Diplomonads, 410, 411
Dipodomys, 869
Dipodomys merriami, 885
Dipodomys ordii, 759–760
Dipsosaurus dorsalis, 611
Diptera, 495
Direct development, 804
Directional selection, 310, 311–312
Disaccharidases, 638
Disaccharides, 27
Dispersal
barriers to, 857–858
impact on ecological communities, 900–901
Dispersal corridors, 879, 880
Disruptive selection, 310, 311, 312
Distal convoluted tubule, 761–763, 765
Distalless (Dll) gene, 291–292
Disturbances, impact on ecological communities, 901–903
Disulfide bridges, 44, 45, 46
Diterpenes, 594
Diuretic hormones, in insects, 747
DNA bacteriophage, 221
DNA fingerprinting, 250
DNA fragments
genomic libraries and cDNA libraries, 261–262
joining by DNA ligase, 257
production by restriction enzymes, 254–255, 256
separation by gel electrophoresis, 255–256
DNA helicase, 180
DNA ligase, 184, 254, 257
DNA methylation, 227–229
DNA methyltransferase, 228
DNA microarrays, 248–249, 264–265
DNA polymerases
in DNA replication, 180, 181, 182, 184
in DNA sequencing, 235, 236
errors and error repair in DNA replication, 184–185
in the polymerase chain reaction, 185, 186
spontaneous mutations and, 189
DNA rearrangements, 313
DNA replication
in binary fission, 132, 133
cell division and, 132
complementary base pairing, 41, 178
DNA polymerases, 180, 181, 182, 184
DNA structure and, 178
errors and error repair, 184–185
in eukaryotic cells, 133
general steps in, 179
polymerase chain reaction and, 185–186
primers, 180, 181, 184
replication forks, 180, 181, 182–183
semiconservative replication, 179
significance of, 41, 42
telomeres, 183–184
DNA segregation
cell division and, 132
in eukaryotic cells, 133
DNA sequences
evolutionary relationships and, 41–42
noncoding, 318
phylogenetic analyses and, 332
recombinant DNA technology and, 253
reconstruction of ancestral sequences, 325, 336–337, 341
repetitive sequences, 246–247
transposons, 241–242
DNA sequencing
comparative genomics, 238
functional genomics, 237–238
impact on evolutionary biology, 302
metagenomics and, 241
methods, 235–237
uses of sequence information, 10, 235
See also Genome sequencing
DNA structure
antiparallel strands, 176–177
discovery of, 174–177
DNA function and, 177–178
key features of, 177, 178
major and minor grooves, 177, 178
DNA transposons, 246, 247
DNA viruses, 397, 399
Dobsonflies, 495
Dobzhansky, Theodosius, 11, 346
Dobzhansky–Muller model, 346, 347
Dog Genome Project, 234
Dogs
epistasis in coat color determination, 160, 161
genetic testing and, 252
genome and genome sequencing, 234, 251
Dolly (cloned sheep), 276, 277
Domains
key characteristics of, 63, 379, 380
Tree of life, 5
Domestication, impact on the plant body, 534–535
Dominance
codominance, 159–160
hierarchy of, 158–159
incomplete, 159
in societies, 839–840
Dominant traits
defined, 152
monohybrid crosses, 152–153
test crosses, 154, 155
Dominican Republic, 537
Dormancy, in seeds, 556, 567
Dorsal, 473
Dorsal fins, 503, 504
Dorsal lip of the blastopore, 799
Double covalent bonds, 22
Double fertilization, 442–443, 577
Double helix, of DNA, 40, 41, 176–177
Double-stranded RNA, 813
Double-stranded RNA viruses, 397, 398–399
Doubling time, 873
Doushantuo fossils, 368
Down syndrome, 145
Downy mildews, 408, 409
Dragonflies, 357, 495, 496, 497
Drosophila
alternative splicing in the Sxl gene, 229
artificial selection and genetic variation, 304
body segmentation during development, 285–288
crossing over and genetic recombination, 162–164
effect of atmospheric oxygen concentrations on body size, 365, 366
evolution of behavior, 829
eyeless mutant, 273
genome characteristics, 244, 245
incomplete cleavage, 792, 793
laboratory experiments in speciation, 356
polarity in early development, 788–789
reproductive isolation increases with genetic divergence, 347
sex determination in, 775
sex-linked inheritance, 164–165, 166
wing development, 289–290
Drought avoiders, 597–598
I-13
Drought stress
plant adaptations, 599, 600
stress response in plants, 224, 225
Droughts, 931
Drug-resistant bacteria, 168–169
Drugs
chemotherapy, 148–149
HIV drugs, 212, 825
pharmacogenomics, 249
protease inhibitors, 212
Drummond, Thomas, 346–347
Duck-billed platypus, 512, 513
Ducks, foot webbing in development, 290, 291
Ductless glands, 736
Dulbecco, Renato, 235
Dung beetles, 884, 901–902, 909–910
Duplications, 189
Dutch elm disease, 464, 585
“Dutchman’s pipe,” 445
Dwarf mistletoe, 544
Dwarfism, in plants, 559–560, 563–564
Dynein, 75, 135
Dyscophus guineti, 11
Dysentery, 638–639
E
E7 protein, 148
Ears, 717–718, 719
Earth
age of, 2
climate (see Climate; Climate change; Global warming)
magnetic field and animal orientation, 836, 837, 838
See also Physical environment
Earthworms, 485
Earwigs, 495
Easterlies, 851
Eastern bluebird, 883
Eastern chipmunks, 864
Eating
provides energy and chemical building blocks, 606–607, 625–629
See also Animal nutrition; Diet; Food; Trophic levels
Ecdysis, 747–748
Ecdysone, 748
Ecdysozoans
horsehair worms, 489–490
key features, 487–488
major subgroups, 476
nematodes, 488–489
small marine clades, 490
See also Arthropods
ECG. See Electrocardiogram
Echidnas, 512
Echinocactus grusnoii, 532
Echinoderms
appendages, 474
cleavage, 791
key features, 498–499
major subgroups, 476
Echinopsis calochlora, 447
Echinozoans, 499
Ecke, Albert, 573
Ecke, Paul, 588
Ecological communities. See Communities
Ecological efficiency, 903–904
Ecological systems
defined, 846
human impact on, 861–862
impact of cattle grazing on grasslands, 845, 862–863
scales of space and time, 846
scientific study of, 847, 848
See also Ecosystems
Ecological transition, 902–903
Ecology, origin of term, 846
EcoRI restriction enzyme, 254, 255, 256
Ecosystem function
effect of climate and nutrients on, 917–920
local and global perspectives, 917
Ecosystem services, 909–911
Ecosystems (ecological systems)
biogeochemical cycles, 920–926
compartments, 920
defined, 846, 917
effect of climate and nutrients on ecosystem function, 917–920
global warming and climate change, 916, 926–932
hierarchical organization of, 6–7, 846
human-dominated, 861–862
See also Ecological systems
Ectoderm
differentiation, 799, 800
in diploblastic and triploblastic embryos, 471–472
extraembryonic membranes and, 803
in gastrulation, 794, 795
tissues and organs formed from, 797
Ectomycorrhizae, 457 (see also Mycorrhizae)
Ectotherms, 611–612
See also Poikilotherms
Ediacaran fossils, 368
Edith’s checkerspot butterfly, 865, 877, 878, 900
Effector cells
in the cellular immune response, 822–824
functions of, 817
in the humoral immune response, 822
Effector proteins, 98
Effectors
autonomic, 725
in the central nervous system, 724
in control systems, 619
plant specific immunity and, 591
Efferent neurons. See Motor neurons
EGF (epidermal growth factor), 282
Eggs
amniote egg, 508
in animal reproduction, 769
cleavage, 790–794
contributions to the animal zygote, 788
cytoplasmic determinants, 790
cytoplasmic segregation, 280
effects of yolk on cleavage, 792
fertilization in animal reproduction, 773–774
gametic isolation, 353
See also Ova
Ejaculation, 695, 780
EKG. See Electrocardiogram
Electric eels, 696–697
Electric fields, perception of, 723
Electric organs, 696–697
Electric rays, 696–697
Electrical synapses, 709–710
Electrocardiogram (ECG or EKG), 671, 672
Electrochemical equilibrium, 704–705
Electrochemical gradients, in plant uptake of ions, 547
Electromagnetic radiation, 119, 120
Electromagnetic spectrum, 722
Electron carriers
NAD in redox reactions, 107–108
photosystems I and II, 122–123
respiratory chain, 111, 112
Electron microscopes, 62
Electron shells, 19–20
Electron transport
photosystems I and II, 122–123
respiratory chain, 111, 112
Electronegativity, 22–23
Electrons
in atomic structure, 19
Bohr model of electron shells, 19–20
chemical bonds and the formation of molecules, 20–26
Electrophorus, 696–697
Electroporation, 259
Element cycling
roles of prokaryotes in, 395–396
See also Biogeochemical cycles
Elements
description of, 19
pools and flux in biogeochemical cycles, 921
Elephantiasis, 489
Elephants, 514
Elicitors, 590, 591, 592
Elk (Cervus), 833, 889, 890–891, 904
Elodea, 120
Elongation
in transcription, 198, 199
in translation, 208–209
Elphidium, 410
Embioptera, 495
Embryo sac, 575, 576–577
Embryonic diapause, 782–783
Embryonic induction, 280–282
Embryonic stem cells, 279
Embryophytes, 421
See also Land plants
Embryos
defined, 274
development (see Development)
diploblastic and triploblastic patterns, 471–472
epiblast of the mammalian gastrula, 796
extraembryonic membranes, 802–804
human, 803
mammalian, 512
of plants (see Plant embryos)
polarity, 280
Emigration, 876–878
Emlen, Stephen, 831
Emu, 511
Encephalartos, 436
End-product inhibition. See Feedback inhibition
Endangered species
cloning of, 276
conservation, 878
Endergonic reactions, 32, 106
Endocrine cells
functions of, 735, 736
organization in control axes, 742–743
secretion of hormones, 739
types of, 736–737
Endocrine glands, 736
Endocrine system
action of hormones on target cells, 739
characteristics and interactions of nervous and endocrine control, 733, 734–736, 749
control axes, 742–743
major hormone groups, 737, 738
overview, 736
pituitary gland–hypothalamus connections and interactions, 740–743
receptor proteins, 737–738
regulation of insect molting, 747–748
regulation of physiological systems in mammals, 744–747
sequence of hormonal signaling, 739–740
types of endocrine cells, 736–747
Endocytosis, 93–95
Endoderm
in diploblastic and triploblastic embryos, 472
extraembryonic membranes and, 802–803
in gastrulation, 794, 795
tissues and organs formed from, 797
Endodermis, 528, 547–548
Endogenous retroviruses, 398
Endomembrane system, 68–71
Endometrium
blastocyst implantation, 777, 793, 794
I-14
in estrous cycles, 778
placenta and, 803
in pregnancy, 779–780
Endophytic fungi, 458
Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)
eukaryotic cells, 66
structure and function, 68–70
Endorphins, 744
Endoskeletons, 688–689
Endosomes, 94
Endosperm
formation, 577, 578
function of, 435, 442–443, 556
Endospores, 384
Endosymbiosis
in the evolution of eukaryotes, 4, 402, 404–405
lateral gene transfer and, 319
microbial eukaryotes and, 416, 417
origin of chloroplasts, 385
Endotoxins, 394
Endurance exercise
ATP supply to muscle cells, 692
defined, 694
muscle cell types and, 693
Energy
animal need for energy transport systems, 617
as a resource for organisms, 870
ATP production in animal cells, 617
chemical reactions and, 31
defined, 606
Earth as an open system with respect to, 920
Earth’s radiant energy budget, 927
in Earth’s radiation budget 926–927
energy content and values of food, 606–607, 625–626
energy needs of animals, 607–609
flow through ecological systems, 889, 903, 904
forms of, 31–32
laws of thermodynamics, 32–34
metabolism and, 32
need for energy by organisms, 606–607, 869–870
in photosynthesis, 121–122
relation to organization, 6, 606–607
as a resource for organisms, 869
solar energy input and climate, 849
use by homeotherms versus poikilotherms, 612–613
See also Energy as related to matter; Solar energy
Energy flux
community function and, 903–904
Energy metabolism
aerobic cellular respiration, 109–114
ATP hydrolysis and the release of energy, 106–107
coupling of NADH oxidation and ATP production, 108
fermentation pathways, 115–116
general principles governing, 106
integration of catabolic and anabolic pathways, 116–118
redox reactions, 107–108
Energy as related to matter, 6, 606–607, 625–627
English elm, 585
Enhancers, 223
Enkephalins, 744
Enteric nervous system, 635, 636, 726
Enterococcus, 381
Entomophthormycotina, 459
Entropy, 33
Environment. See Physical environment, Biotic environment
Environmental remediation. See Bioremediation; Phytoremediation
Environmental sex determination, 775
Enzymes
activation energy and the acceleration of chemical reactions, 49–50
allosteric, 54–55
aspirin’s inhibition of cyclooxygenase, 57–58
binding of reactants at active sites, 51–53
cofactors, 52
defined, 49
environmental factors affecting the activity of, 56–57
genes and, 195–196
inducible, 618
in the regulation of metabolic pathways, 53–57
reversible and irreversible inhibition of, 54, 55
Enzyme–substrate complex, 51–52
Eons, 359–361
Eosinophils, 811
Ephemeridae, 805
Ephemeroptera, 495
Epiblast, 792, 794, 795–796
Epidemics, 298, 323
Epidermal growth factor (EGF), 282
Epidermis, 525, 530, 531
Epididymis, 772, 780
Epigenetic gene regulation
description of, 226–229
maternal care and, 831–832
Epinephrine (adrenaline)
activation of glycogen breakdown, 99, 100–101
fight-or-flight response, 739
half-life, 739
structure and function, 638, 737, 738, 744
Epistasis, 160, 161
Episyrphus balteatus, 894
Epithelial endocrine cells, 736, 737
Epithelium
of the digestive system, 632–633
structure and function, 615, 616
in the vertebrate digestive system, 635, 636
Epitopes, 816
Epstein–Barr virus, 824–825
Eptatretus stoutii, 503
Equatorial Countercurrent, 852
Equatorial plate
meiosis II, 142
mitosis, 137
Equilibrium
and auxin ionization, 561
defined, 874
and diffusion, 87
of ligand–receptor complexes, 97
microfilament assembly, 73
systems, 8
Equilibrium population size, 874
Equilibrium potential, 704
Equilibrium species richness, 907
Equinoxes, 849, 850
Equisetum, 370, 430
Equisetum pratense, 429
Eras, 359–361
Erectile dysfunction, 780
Erection, 664, 780
Erethizon dorsatum, 513
Erinaceomorpha, 514
Erwin, Terry, 469
Erwinia uredovora, 269
Erythropoietin, 267
Escherichia, 394
Escherichia coli
accumulation of mutations in populations, 303
bacteriophage T2, 174
binary fission, 130
EcoRI restriction enzyme, 254, 255, 256
genome, 240–241, 244
lac operon, 217–219
origin of replication, 180
as a proetobacterium, 387
recombinant DNA and, 257
transcriptional regulation of lactose metabolism, 216–218
Eschrichtius robustus, 630
Escovopsis, 882
Esophagus, 637
Essay on the Principles of Population (Malthus), 876
Essential amino acids, 627, 641
Essential elements, in plant nutrition, 538–539
Essential fatty acids, 627, 641
Essential minerals, in animal nutrition, 629, 682
Essential nutrients, in animal nutrition, 627–628, 629, 641
Estemmenosuchus, 370
Ester linkages, 388
Estradiol, 738
Estrogens
actions of, 744
menstrual cycle, 778, 779
regulation of mammalian reproduction, 776, 777, 778–779
role in sexual development, 746, 747
Estrous cycles, 778, 784
Estrus, 768, 774, 778, 784
Estuarine biomes, 856, 857
Ether linkages, 388–389
Ethiopian biogeographic region, 858, 859, 861
Ethyl alcohol (ethanol), 115, 116
Ethylene, 559, 565–566
Etoposide, 148
Euchromatin, 228
Eudicots
defined, 446
early shoot development, 557
embryogenesis, 524
representatives of, 445, 446, 447
root structure, 529, 530
secondary growth, 533–534
stele, 529
structural characteristics, 522, 523
vascular bundles, 530–531
Euglena, 411
Euglenids, 405, 410–411
Eukarya (domain), 5, 63, 370, 380
Eukaryotes
asexual reproduction, 130
defined, 4
differences with prokaryotes, 379
domain of, 5
evolution of, 402–405
genomes, 243–247
major clades, 405
multiple origins of multicellularity, 405–406
posttranscriptional gene regulation, 229–232
protists, 402, 405 (see also Protists)
shared characteristics with prokaryotes, 379
transcriptional gene regulation, 222–225
Eukaryotic cells
cell division by mitosis and cytokinesis, 133–137
chemiosmosis in, 111–113
compartmentalization, 68
endomembrane system, 68–71
endosymbiosis in the evolution of, 402, 404–405
evolution of, 402–404
key features of, 63, 65–67
nucleus, 68
organelles, 71–73
ribosomes, 68
sexual reproduction and the generation of genetic diversity, 130–131
Eukaryotic viruses, 225–226
Eumetazoans, 475
Eumorpha pandorus, 654
I-15
Euphorbia pulcherrima, 573
Euphydryas editha, 865, 877, 878
Euphyllophytes, 422, 431
Euplectella aspergillum, 477
Euplectes progne, 306, 307
Euplotes, 407
Eurasian Plate, 361
Europa, 18
Europasaurus holgeri, 370
European green crab, 895
European rabbits, 768
Euryarchaeota, 388, 389–390
Eurycea waterlooensis, 507
Eusociality, 840–841
Eustachian tube, 718
Eusthenopteron, 506
Eusthenopteron foordi, 369
Eutherians
cleavage, 792–793
key features and major groups, 512–514
primates and human evolution, 514–517
See also Placental mammals
Eutrophication, 923, 925
Evaporation
in the global water cycle, 921
in thermoregulation, 614
See also Transpiration
Even-toed hoofed mammals, 514
Evolution
actions of natural selection on quantitative traits, 310–312
of animal behavior, 829
artificial selection on genetic variation, 303–304
of cleavage patterns in development, 790
of coelom development, 796, 797
coevolution in plant–animal interactions, 441–442, 894, 895
defined, 10, 299, 302
developmental genes and, 291–293
ecological interactions result in, 892
as fact and the basis for theory, 11
gene duplications and, 319–320
gene flow and, 305
genetic drift and, 305
genomes and molecular evolution, 312–318
lateral gene transfer and, 319
of leaf-cutter ant–fungus interaction, 896–897
major steps in the origin and history of life, 2–4
measuring by changes in allele frequencies, 307–310
“modern synthesis,” 301–302
of morphology, 291–293
mutations and the generation of genetic variation, 9, 191, 302–303
natural selection and adaptation, 10–11, 304–305
origin and development of evolutionary theory, 299–302
principal processes in, 302, 308
rate of evolutionary change, 895
sexual recombination and, 318–319
sexual selection, 306, 307
species interactions and, 892–896
tree of life, 4–5
viruses and, 298, 322–323
in vitro evolution, 321, 322
See also Convergent evolution; Molecular evolution
Evolutionary developmental biology, 288–291
Evolutionary reversals, 328
Evolutionary theory
Darwin’s main propositions, 300
history of, 299–302
meaning of, 299
useful applications, 299, 321–322, 323
Evolutionary trends, 311
Excavates, 410–412
Excitable cells, 700
See also Muscle cells; Neurons
Excitation, of muscle fibers, 685, 686
Excitation–contraction coupling, 685–688, 696
Excitatory postsynaptic potentials (EPSPs), 712–713
Excitatory synapses, 712
Excretion, of nitrogenous wastes, 755–756
Excretory organs. See Kidneys
Exercise
anaerobic ATP production and lactic acid accumulation, 617
ATP supply to muscle cells, 692
effect on skeletal muscle, 693–694
impact on metabolic rate, 608–609
measuring the energy costs of, 605, 622
muscle cell types and, 693
Exergonic reactions, 32, 49–50, 106
Exocrine glands, 736
Exocytosis, 93
Exons
in the eukaryotic genome, 246
in genes, 200
removal, 201–202
Exoskeletons
attachment and pulling of skeletal muscles, 689–690
defined, 688
ecdysozoans, 488
molting in insects, 747–748
Exotoxins, 394
Expansins, 563
Experiments, 13, 14, 15
Expression vectors, 265–266
Expressivity, 162
External environment
animal regulation and conformity, 609–610
homeotherms (see Homeotherms/Homeothermy)
poikilotherms, 610–612, 613
External expiration, 646
See also Breathing
External fertilization, 773
External genitalia, 746
Extinct species, cloning of, 276
Extinction rates
minimizing in fragmented habitats, 912
theory of island biogeography, 907
Extinctions
impact on ecological communities, 900–901
interspecific interactions and, 887
in subpopulations, 876–877
See also Mass extinctions
Extracellular fluid, 615
Extracellular matrix
membrane proteins and, 83
structure and function, 77–78
Extraembryonic membranes
contributions of germ layers to, 802–803
development in placental mammals, 796
Extrarenal salt excretion, 754–755
Extreme halophiles, 389–390
Extremophiles, 385
Exxon Valdez oil spill, 271
Eye fields, 294
Eye infections, 387
Eyeless gene, 273, 294
Eyes
compound, 722
evolution, 273, 294
holoprosencephaly, 787, 806
vertebrate retina, 719–721
See also Visual systems
“Eyes,” of potatoes, 531, 532, 586
F
F-box, 564
Fabaceae, 542
Facilitated diffusion
by channel proteins and carrier proteins, 89–91, 92
in plant uptake of ions, 546–547
Factor VIII, 267
Facultative anaerobes, 394
Facultative parasites, 453
Fallopian tubes, 777
False hellebore, 787
Familial hypercholesterolemia, 95
Family (Linnaean classification), 339
Family trees, 157–158
“Fan worms,” 484
Far-red light, phytochrome-mediated responses in plants, 568–569
Farm animals
pharming, 266–267
See also Cattle
Fast glycolytic cells
characteristics of, 692, 693
effect of training on, 694
Fast synapses, 712–713
Fast-twitch cells. See Fast glycolytic cells
Fate maps, 790
Fats, 29–30
Fatty acids
absorption in the midgut, 638
in animal nutrition, 627
catabolic interconversions, 116
essential fatty acids, 627, 641
formed from acetyl CoA, 117
glucose-activated synthesis, 117–118
in membranes, 84, 85
regulation of blood levels, 640
structure and properties, 29–30
Fauna, 367
FD gene, 582, 583, 584
Fear response, 729
“Feather duster worms,” 484
Feather stars, 499
Feathers, evolution, 511
Feces, 638, 848
Fecundity, 868
Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), 250
Feedback
inhibition, 55, 56, 117
negative, 8, 619–620, 716
positive, 8, 620, 708
Feedback inhibition, 55, 56, 117
Females
ovulation, 777–779
primary and accessory reproductive organs, 770
secondary sexual characteristics, 770–771
Fermentation
gut microbiome and, 631–632
human uses of, 126
pathways in, 115–116
Ferns, 429–431
Ferritin, 231
Fertile Crescent, 269
Fertilization
activation of animal development, 788
in angiosperms, 442–443, 577
in animals, 773–774
defined, 131
in mammals, 777
phylogenetic analyses of mechanisms in flowering plants, 336, 337
sex determination in animals and, 774–775
Fertilizers, 541 (see also Nitrogen cycle)
Fetal hemoglobin, 246
Fetscher, Elizabeth, 442
Fetus, 803
Fever, 813–814
Fibers, 439, 526
Fibroblasts, 224
Fibrous root system, 529, 530
Ficedula hypoleuca, 828
Fick’s law, 645
I-16
“Fight-or-flight” hormone. See Epinephrine
Fight-or-flight response, 726, 739
Filamentous sac fungi, 464, 465
Filaments, 439
Filter feeders, 630
Fins, 503, 504
Fire, impact on terrestrial biomes, 856
Fire-bellied toad, 354–355
Fire salamanders, 507
Firmicutes, 384, 385, 847, 848
First filial generation (F1)
defined, 151
dihybrid crosses, 154–155
monohybrid crosses, 152, 153
test crosses, 154, 155
Fish hawk, 629, 630
Fisheries management, 878
Fishes
action of prolactin, 739
allopatric speciation in freshwater fishes, 348
circulatory system, 665–666
conservation of, 878
countercurrent heat exchange, 675, 678–679
electric organs, 696–697
evolution of, 503–504
evolution of jaws and teeth, 503
excretion of nitrogenous wastes, 755
eyeless, 294
fins, 503, 504
gnathostomes, 503–504
hearts, 667
hyperosmotic regulators, 757–758
hyposmotic regulators, 756–757, 758
inducible enzymes, 618
jawless, 501–503
perception of electric fields, 723
ray-finned, 502, 504, 505
red and white swimming muscles, 693 (see also Red swimming muscles)
schooling behavior, 827, 839, 843
sex changes, 775, 776
swim bladders, 504
water–salt balance, 751, 766
yolk sac, 803–804
Fishflies, 495
Fission, 769
Fitness
interspecific interactions and, 883–884
intraspecific interactions and, 892
selection and, 310–312
Fixed action patterns, 828
Flagella
of chytrids, 460
prokaryotic cells, 65
structure and function, 74–75
Flatworms, 476, 481–482, 518, 648
Flavin, 52
Flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD)
in aerobic cellular respiration, 111
as an electron carrier in redox reactions, 108
as a cofactor, 52
Flavonoids, 542, 594
Flavoparmelia, 456
FLC gene, 584
Fleas, 495
Fleming, Alexander, 450
Flight
evolution in birds, 511
See also Wings
Flight muscles, of insects, 681, 696, 697
Flightless birds, 510, 511
Flocking behavior, 839
Flora, 367
Floral meristems
floral organ development, 284, 285
floral organ identity genes, 580
formation, 579
meristem identity genes, 580
organs produced, 580
See also Flowering
Floral organ identity genes, 580
Florey, Howard, 450
Florigen, 582, 583
Flowering
floral organ development, 284, 285
floral organ identity genes, 580
florigen, 582, 583
formation of floral and inflorescence meristems, 579–580
induction by gibberellins, 584
induction by temperature, 584
meristem identity genes, 580
overview, 579
photoperiod and, 580–582
in response to environmental factors, 584–585, 929
role of leaves in, 582, 583
Flowering plants. See Angiosperms
Flowers
development (see Flowering)
evolution, 440
morphology, 439–440, 574–575
pollination strategies, 420, 441–442, 447–448
Flu epidemics, 298, 323
Fluid compartments, 615–616
Fluid mosaic model, 83
Fluorescent proteins
reconstruction of ancestral states, 325, 341
See also Green fluorescent protein5-Fluorouracil, 148
Flux
between communities and the environment, 903 (see also Energy flux)
of elements in biogeochemical cycles, 921 (see also Biogeochemical cycles)
Fly agaric, 465
Flying insects
of the Carboniferous and Permian, 357
effect of atmospheric oxygen concentrations on body size, 357, 365, 366, 374
flight muscles, 681, 696, 697
Flying squirrels, 620, 621
Folic acid, 229, 628
Foliose lichens, 456, 457
Follicle cells, 788–789
Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)
actions of, 744
menstrual cycle, 778, 779
regulation of mammalian reproduction, 776, 778–779, 781
in sexual development, 746–747
support of spermatogenesis, 781
as a tropic hormone, 741
Food
processing, digestion, and absorption, 636–638
provision of energy and chemical building blocks, 625–629
regulation of meal processing in animals, 639–641
relationship of food value to digestive abilities, 632–635
ways of acquiring, 629–630
See also Animal nutrition
Food vesicles, 93
Food webs, 889, 890
Foot (molluscan), 485, 486, 487, 691
Foot webbing, 290, 291
Foraging behavior, cost–benefit analysis, 842
Foraminiferans, 409–410, 418
Forebrain, 727–728, 798
Foregut, 636–637
Foregut fermentation, 314–316
Foregut fermenters, 637
Forelimbs, loss in snakes, 292
Forensics, phylogenetic analyses, 334, 335
Forestry, plant cloning and, 276
Form. See Form and function interrelationships
Form and function interrelationships
as exemplified by cell membranes, 83
as exemplified by DNA form and function, 40, 179
as exemplified by ecological relationships, 899–890, 901
as exemplified by the muscles of the body, 682–684
as exemplified by protein enzymes, 51–52
as exemplified by the leaf, 531
as exemplified by neuron form and function, 701
See also Structure—function relationships
Fossil fuels
in the carbon cycle, 924
climate change and, 361–362, 916, 928, 932
diatoms and, 417
formation of coal, 429
Fossil record
Cenozoic era, 373–374
dating of fossils, 357, 358–359
earliest cells, 80
history of Precambrian life, 367–368
Mesozoic era, 373
number of described fossil species, 367
Paleozoic era, 372–373
Phanerozoic eon, 368–372
Precambrian life, 367–368
reasons for the paucity of, 367
See also Paleontology
Founder effect, 305
Four-chambered heart, 512
Four o’clock plants, 167
FOXP2 gene, 192
Fragaria, 532
Fragmentation, of habitats, 911–912
Frameshift mutations, 205, 206, 820
Franklin, Rosalind, 175, 176
Free energy, 49–50, 106
Freeze-tolerant plants, 600
French flag model, 283
Freshwater biomes, 856–857
Freshwater fishes, allopatric speciation, 348
Freshwater protists, contractile vacuoles, 73
Frogs
behavioral isolation, 351–352
cell fate restriction during development, 275
complete cleavage, 792, 793
experiments on amphibian decline, 12–13, 14, 15
gastrulation, 795
hopping behavior and ATP production, 832–833
temporal isolation, 351, 352
Frontal lobe, 728
Fructose, 27, 124
Fruit flies. See Drosophila
Fruits
auxin and development, 562
ethylene and ripening, 565
growth and gibberellins, 560
seed dispersal and, 443–444, 577–578
a shared trait of angiosperms, 439
types of, 443–444
Fruticose lichens, 456
FT gene, 582, 583, 584
Fucoxanthin, 408
Function
of ecological communities, 903
of ecosystems, 917
See also Community function; Ecosystem function; Ecosystem services; Form and function
I-17
interrelationships; Structure—function relationships
Functional genomics, 237–238, 240
Functional groups, 25–26
Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), 729
Fungal diseases, 454, 455
Fungal gardens, 882, 896–897
Fungi
absorptive heterotrophy, 451–452
in animal innate defenses, 812
antibiotics and, 450, 468
arbuscular mycorrhizae, 542–543
biocontrol of mosquitoes, 468
cultivation by leaf-cutter ants, 882, 883, 884, 896–897
endophytic, 458
in environmental remediation, 466
evolution, 451
as indicators of environmental change, 466, 467
major groups and their life cycles, 458–465
mutualistic, 455–457
parasitic, 453–454
pathogenic, 454, 455
penicillin, 450
predatory, 454–455, 456
saprobic, 453
surface area-to-volume ratio, 452
unicellular yeasts, 451
Furcula, 510
Fusarium, 454
G
G1 checkpoint, 139
G2 checkpoint, 139
G1 phase, 134, 136, 138, 139
G2 phase, 134, 136
G protein-linked receptor proteins (GPLRs), 716–717
G protein-linked receptors
of hormones, 737–738, 739
metabotropic receptor cells, 712, 715
olfactory receptor cells, 716–717
structure and function, 98
G proteins
GTPase activity, 102
metabotropic receptor cells, 715
Gain-of-function mutations, 187, 188, 285
Galactose, 27
β-Galactosidase, 217
β-Galactosidase gene, 260, 266
β-Galactoside, 217, 218
β-Galactoside permease, 217
β-Galactoside transacetylase, 217
Galagos, 514
Galápagos archipelago
allopatric speciation in Darwin’s finches, 348, 349
Darwin’s travels to, 300
Galápagos finches. See Darwin’s finches
Galápagos tortoise, 509
Gallbladder, 636
Gametangia, 427, 460, 461
Gametes
in animal reproduction, 769
gametic isolation, 353
production in animals, 771–773
in sexual reproduction, 130, 131
Gametic isolation, 353
Gametogenesis, 771–773
Gametophyte
in angiosperms, 439, 575–576
in the life cycle of land plants, 424–452
in plant evolution, 433
in seed plants, 432–433
Ganglion (pl. ganglia)
annelids, 484
arthropod nervous system, 724–725
crustacean heart, 671, 672
vertebrate nervous systems, 725, 726
Ganglion cells, 720–721, 721–722
Gangliosides, 71
Ganoderma applanatum, 465
Gap genes, 286, 287
Gap junctions
in cardiac muscle, 695
in electrical synapses, 710
in smooth muscle, 696
structure and function, 78, 79
Garrod, Archibald, 195
Gas chromatography, 239
Gas exchange, stomatal control in plants, 550–551
Gas exchange membranes
in cocurrent and countercurrent gas exchange systems, 649–650
defined, 646
perfusion, 649
surface area in breathing organs, 649
Gases
law of diffusion, 645
See also Atmospheric gases; Respiratory gases
Gastrin, 639
Gastrocnemius, 689, 690
Gastrointestinal disease, 387, 392
Gastrophryne carolinensis, 352
Gastrophryne olivacea, 352
Gastropods, 485, 486, 487
Gastrovascular cavity, 478
Gastrula, 275
Gastrulation, 472, 794–797
Gated ion channels
evolution in sodium channels, 321
membrane potential and, 705–706
stimulus-gated sodium channels, 715
stretch-gated channels, 705, 706, 716
types and mechanisms, 89
See also Ligand-gated ion channels; Voltage-gated ion channels
Gaucher’s disease, 267
Gause, Georgii F., 886–887
Gehring, Walter, 273
Gel electrophoresis, 254, 255–256
“Gene chips.” See DNA microarrays
Gene duplications, 319–320
Gene expression
in cell fate determination and differentiation, 279–282
defined, 41, 42
differences between prokaryotes and eukaryotes, 199
DNA microarrays and, 264–265
evolution of development and, 288–291
genetic code, 203–206
overview, 197
in pattern formation and morphogenesis, 283–288
in plant induced defenses, 591
posttranslational modification of polypeptides, 211–213
proteins and, 194
transcription, 197–202
translation, 206–210
“Gene expression signatures,” 264–265
Gene families, 246, 320
Gene flow, 305, 308
Gene-for-gene resistance, in plants, 592
“Gene guns,” 259
Gene inactivation, by homologous recombination, 262–263
Gene pools, 302–303
Gene regulation
CREB and alcoholism, 215
epigenetic, 226–229
examples of, 216
positive and negative regulation, 216
posttranscriptional, 229–232
transcriptional regulation in eukaryotes, 222–225
in viral reproduction, 220–221
Gene trees, lateral gene transfer in prokaryotes and, 382–383
General immunity, in plants, 591, 592–593
General transcription factors, 222
Generative cell, 575–576
Genes
alleles, 152 (see also Alleles)
animal behavior and, 829
artificial gene constructs, 262
defined, 41, 42, 162
determination of phenotype, 154
epistasis and hybrid vigor, 160, 161
evolution of, 312–318 (see also Molecular evolution)
gene–environment interactions, 160–162
genetic information and, 9
homozygous and heterozygous alleles, 153
horizontal transfer in prokaryotes, 167–169
imprinting, 229
incompatibility between can produce reproductive isolation, 346, 347
inducible and constitutive, 217, 222
lateral gene transfer, 319
locus, 162
mapping, 164
Mendelian inheritance, 151–158
mutation and the formation of new alleles, 158, 186–188
organelles and cytoplasmic inheritance, 166–167
polymorphic, 158
in the production of phenotype, 158–162
promoters, 198, 199–200
recombination, 162–164
recombination frequency, 164
regulatory and structural, 219
relationship to proteins, 194, 195–197
silencing mechanisms, 230, 231
Genetic code
characteristics of, 203–204
near universality of, 204–205
point mutations, 205–206
redundancy, 204
Genetic divergence, reproductive isolation and, 346–347
Genetic diversity
generation by crossing over and independent assortment in meiosis, 140, 142–145
generation by meiosis in sexual reproduction, 130–131
Genetic drift, 305, 313
Genetic information
description of, 9–10
encoding and expression in DNA, 9, 40–41, 42, 178
Genetic linkage
crossing over and recombination, 162–164
Drosophila as a model organism, 162–166
sex-linked inheritance, 164–165, 166
X-linked inherited diseases, 824
Genetic recombination, 162–164
Genetic screens, for studying plant signal transduction, 557–558
Genetic self-incompatibility, 576
Genetic structure, 308
Genetic switches, 289–290, 291
Genetic testing, of dogs, 252
Genetic toolkit, 289–290, 291
Genetic transformation. See Transformation
Genetic variation
I-18
allele frequencies as a measure of, 308
artificial selection on, 303–304
mutation and the generation of, 302–303
population bottlenecks and, 305
Genetically modified plants, 267–270
Genome sequencing
dogs and, 251
methods, 235–237
uses of genomic information, 10, 235, 250–251
See also DNA sequencing
Genomes
archaea, 387
comparative genomics, 238
defined, 4, 41
dog, 234
eukaryotes, 243–247
evolution of size and organization, 317–318 (see also Molecular evolution)
functional genomics, 237–238
gene families, 246
genetic information in, 9, 41
human and chimpanzee genomes compared, 42
minimal genome, 242, 243
model organisms, 243–245
mutations and evolution, 4, 9
phylogenetic analyses and, 331–332
prokaryotic, 240–243
uses of genomic information, 10, 235, 250–251
See also Human genome
Genomic equivalence, 275
Genomic imprinting, 229
Genomic libraries, 261
Genotype
defined, 153
genotype–environment interactions, 160–162
Genotype frequencies
calculating, 307–308
Hardy–Weinberg equilibrium and, 308–310
impact of nonrandom mating on, 306, 307
Genotype technology, 248–249
Genus, 338
Geobacter metallireducens, 113
Geographic range, 865
See also Home ranges
Geological time scale, 359–361
Geospiza
interspecific competition and evolution, 892, 894
intraspecific competition and evolution in beak size, 892, 893
See also Darwin’s finches
Geospiza fuliginosa, 892, 894
Geospiza scandens, 868, 869
Germ cells, gametogenesis and, 771–773
Germ layers
contributions to extraembryonic membranes, 802–803
in gastrulation, 794–797
tissues and organs formed from, 797
Germination (of pollen grains), 576
Germination (of seeds)
gibberellins and, 560–561
prevention by abscisic acid, 566–567
process of, 556–557
Germline mutations, 186
Gestation
in humans, 803
in marsupials, 512
Gharials, 510
Ghrelin, 639
Giant anteater, 340
Giardia lamblia, 410
Giardiasis, 410
Giarida muris, 411
Gibberella fujikuroi, 558
Gibberellins
discovery of, 558–560
effects on plant growth and development, 560–561
induction of flowering, 584
molecular mechanisms underlying the actions of, 563–564
semi-dwarf grains and, 571
structure and function, 559
Gibbons, 515
Gill arches, 650, 651
Gill filaments, 650–651
Gill slits, 650, 651
Gills
countercurrent gas exchange, 650–651
structure and function, 646, 647
surface area of gas exchange membranes, 649
of tuna, 661
ventilation, 647
Ginkgophyta, 424
Ginkgos (Ginkgo biloba), 370, 424, 436
Giraffes, neck evolution, 290
Girdle, 485
Gizzard, 636
Glaciation
during the Pleistocene, 374
during the Proterozoic, 367–368
during the Quaternary, 361
Gladiators, 495
Glands
exocrine and endocrine, 736
See also specific glands Glans, 746
Glass sponges, 476, 477
Glaucocystis, 423
Glaucomys volans, 621
Glaucophytes, 421, 422, 423
Glial cells, functions of, 701–702
Global ecosystem
biogeochemical cycles, 920–926 (see also Biogeochemical cycles)
compartments, 920
ecosystem function, 917–920
global warming and climate change, 916, 926–932
Global warming
effects on weather and climate, 927, 928, 929
greenhouse gases and, 927, 928
role of human activities in, 928
See also Climate changeβ-Globin, 188, 196β-Globin gene, 202
Globin gene family, 246, 320
Globular embryo, 524
Glomeromycota, 458, 459, 462
Glomerular filtration rate (GFR), 761
Glomerulus, 760–761
Glucagon, 640–641
Glucocorticoids
actions of, 744
hypothalamus–pituitary–adrenal cortex axis, 743
Gluconeogenesis, 117
Glucose
aerobic oxidation, 111–114
blood glucose regulation by hormones, 640–641
facilitated diffusion, 90, 91
fatty acid synthesis and, 117–118
formation in gluconeogenesis, 117
from the hydrolysis of polysaccharides, 116
polysaccharides of, 28
produced by photosynthesis, 124, 125
structure, 27
Glucose transporter, 90, 91
Glucosinolates, 594
Glutamic acid, 43, 196
Glutamine, 43
Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate (G3P), 110, 124, 125
Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate dehydrogenase, 110
Glycerol
absorption in the midgut, 638
in the catabolic interconversions of lipids, 116
structure, 29
Glycine, 43, 44
Glycine, 862
Glycine max. See Soybean
Glycogen
epinephrine-activated breakdown, 99, 100–101
molecular and macromolecular structure, 28
in the regulation of blood nutrient levels, 640–641, 744
as a stored energy source, 626–627
Glycogen phosphorylase, 99, 100, 101
Glycogen synthase, 100–101
Glycolipids, 86
Glycolysis
aerobic, 109–110
anaerobic, 115, 116, 617
Glycolytic system of ATP supply, 691–692
Glycoproteins, 70, 86
Glycosides, 594
Glycosidic linkages, 27
Glycosylation, 212, 213
Glyoxysomes, 72
Glyphosate resistance, 270
G2–M phase transition, 135
Gnathonemus, 723
Gnathostomes, 503–504
Gnetophytes, 424, 436
Goiter, 745–746
Golden butterflyfish, 827
Golden toads, 507
Golgi, Camillo, 70
Golgi apparatus
eukaryotic cells, 66, 67
structure and function, 69, 70
Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH)
pulsed secretion, 743
regulation of mammalian reproduction, 776, 777–778
in sexual development, 747
Gonadotropins, 741, 746–747
Gonads
gametogenesis, 771–773
as primary reproductive organs, 770
sex steroids and sexual development, 746–747
sex steroids and the regulation of mammalian reproduction, 776–777, 778–779, 780, 781
Gondwana, 373, 859
Gorillas, 515
Goshawks, 839
Graafian follicle, 773
Graded changes, in membrane potential, 706–707
Grafting, 586
Grains, improved nutritional characteristics of transgenic plants, 269
Gram-negative bacteria, 381
Gram-positive bacteria, 381
Gram stains, 381
Grant, Peter, 841, 893
Grant, Rosemary, 841
Granulosa cells, 772–773, 778, 779
Graphosoma lineatum, 497
Graspus graspus, 493
Grasshoppers, 497
body plan, 494
breathing system, 653–654
characteristics of, 496
number of species, 495
Grasslands
biogeography, 854–856
ecological impact of cattle grazing, 845, 862–863
fire and, 856
I-19
U.S.–Mexico Borderlands, 845, 855, 856, 861–862, 862–863
Gravitropism, 562
Gray crescent, 789, 794
Grazing herbivores
ecological impact of cattle, 845, 862–863
eutherians, 513
See also Herbivory
Great American Interchange, 859
Great tits, 930, 931
Great white shark, 504
Greater prairie chicken, 305
Greek tortoise, 787
“Green algae,” 421, 423
Green crabs, 895
Green fluorescent protein (GFP), 260, 261, 325
Green plants, 421, 422
Green Revolution, 555, 570–571, 876
Greenhouse gases/Greenhouse effect, 389, 916, 926–927
See also Climate change
Gremlin gene, 290, 291
Grey whales, 630
Greylag geese, 830–831
Gross primary productivity (GPP), 903, 904
Ground finch, 892, 894
Ground meristem
root cortex, 528
shoots, 530
tissue system created by, 527
Ground tissue system
description of, 524, 525–526
primary meristem creating, 527
roots, 528
Groundhogs, 615
Group living, 839–841
Growing seasons, 853
Growing strand. See Leading strand
Growth
allometric, 804
animal behavior and, 833, 834
in development, 274
See also Population growth
Growth factors, in cell cycle regulation, 138, 140
Growth hormone (GH)
actions of, 744
releasing hormone for, 742
secretion by the anterior pituitary gland, 741
structure, 738
Grus canadensis, 512
Grylloblattodea, 495
G1–S transition, 138, 140
GTPase, 102
Guanine
base pairing, 38–40, 41
in DNA, 176, 177
in DNA replication, 179
structure, 38
Guanosine diphosphate (GDP), 98
Guanosine triphosphate (GTP), 98
Guard cells, 550, 551
Gulf of Mexico
“dead zones,” 923, 925
red tides, 401
Gulf Stream, 851–852
Gulls, begging behavior, 828
Gumaga, 497
Gut epithelium
endocrine cells, 639
in the vertebrate digestive system, 635, 636
Gut lumen, 635, 636
Gut microbiome (see also Microbiome)
as an ecological system, 846, 847, 848
animal nutrition and, 631–632, 641
obesity and, 847, 848
Gymnosperms
characteristics of, 435–436
conifer life cycle, 437–438
evolution of, 436–437
in the evolution of plants, 422
life cycle, 433
major groups, 424, 436
Gypsy moth, 864
Gyres, 851–852
H
H zone, 683, 684
Habeler, Peter, 643
Habitat corridors, 879, 880
Habitat isolation, 352, 356
Habitat structure, 900, 901
Habitats
defined, 865
fragmentation, 911–912
restoration of degraded habitats, 912, 913
Hadean eon, 359, 360–361
Hadley cells, 850–851, 927
Hadobacteria, 385
Hadrurus arizonensis, 475
Haeckel, Ernst, 846
Haemophilus influenzae, 240–241, 244
Hagfishes, 501–503
Hair, 512
Hair cells, auditory, 717–718, 719
Haiti, 537
Half-life
of hormones, 739
of radioactive isotopes, 358
Halophytes, 601
Hammerhead sharks, 773–774
Haplochromine cichlids, 343
Haploids, 131, 132, 152
Haplotype mapping, 248
Haplotypes, 248
Hardy–Weinberg equilibrium, 308–310
“Harvest index,” 571
Harvestmen, 492
Hasimoto’s thyroiditis, 816
Haustoria, 454
Hawk moth, 681
Hawthorn trees, 350
Hayes, Tyrone, 13, 14, 15
Hearing organs, 717–718, 719
Heart muscle. See Myocardium
Heart rhythm, 695
Heartbeats, 668–670, 671
Hearts
in amphibians and non-avian reptiles, 666–667
in crustaceans, 671–672
in fish, 665
four-chambered, 512
in mammals and birds, 666
muscle tissue of, 667
overview, 667
stroke volume and cardiac output, 667
in vertebrates, 667–670 (see also Myogenic hearts)
“Heat.” See Estrus
Heat
metabolic rate and, 607
circulation of, in Earth system, 850–851 (see also Greenhouse effect)
Heat capacity, 23
Heat of vaporization, 23
Heat shock proteins, 600
Heat shock response, 600
Heavy metal tolerance, in plants, 601–602
Hedgehog gene, 787
Height
heritability in humans, 162
variation among human populations and life histories, 870
Heinrich, Bernd, 842
Helical molecules, 176–177
Helicobacter pylori, 393
Heliconius, 894, 895
Hemaris thysbe, 681
Hematopoietic stem cell transplantation, 278–279
Hematopoietic stem cells, 278–279
Heme, 52
Hemichordates, 476, 498, 499–500
Hemigrapsus sanguineus, 895
Hemiparasites, 544
Hemiptera, 495
Hemitrichia serpula, 413
Hemizygotes, 165
Hemocyanin, 678
Hemoglobin
beta thalassemia, 202
blood transport of oxygen, 677–678
gene duplication in the evolution of, 320
globin gene family, 246
hemoglobin C disease, 196
molecular clock analysis, 337
pogonophorans, 485
in water fleas, 618
Hemoglobin C disease, 196
Hemolymph, 664, 665
Hemophilia, 150, 169–170
Hensen’s node, 795, 799
Henslow, John, 299
Hepatic portal vein, 668
Hepatic veins, 668
Hepatophyta, 424
Herbicide resistance, 270
Herbicides, amphibian decline and, 13, 14, 15
Herbivory
ecological impact of cattle grazing, 845, 862–863
effects on fitness, 883, 884
as an interspecific interaction, 883
induced and constitutive defenses against in plants, 593–596
mammalian herbivores, 513
Heritability, 162
Hermaphrodites, sequential, 775, 776
Herpes viruses, 397
Herring gulls, 828
Heterocephalus glaber, 840
Heterochromatin, 228, 247
Heterochrony, 290
Heterocysts, 386
Heterokaryons, 86
Heteroloboseans, 410
Heteromorphic alternation of generations, 415
Heterophrynus batesi, 488
Heterospory
in seed plants, 433
in vascular plants, 431–432
Heterotopy, 290, 291
Heterotrophs
consumption of plant matter, 124
defined, 606
eating to obtain energy and chemical building blocks, 606–607
in species interaction webs, 889
Heterotypy, 291–292
Heterozygote advantage, 316–317
Heterozygote deficiency, 309
Heterozygotes
defined, 153
hierarchy of dominance, 158–159
test crosses, 154, 155
Heterozygous carriers, 158
Hexapods, 476, 492–493, 495
Hexoses, 27, 124, 125
Hibernation, 614–615
Hibiscus cannabinus, 521, 535
High blood pressure, 668
High elevations
and temperature, 852
breathing at, 643
limits of work at, 659–660
High-GC Gram-positives, 384–385
High-performance liquid chromatography, 239
High-throughput sequencing, 235–237
Highly repetitive sequences, 246–247
Himalayan mountains, 361
Himanthalia elongata, 409
Hindbrain, 727, 798
Hindgut, 637, 638–639
Hindgut fermenters, 637
Hippocampus, 713, 729
Hirudo medicinalis, 485
Hispaniola, 537
I-20
Histamine, 813, 814
Histidine, 43
Histone acetyltransferases, 227
Histone deacetylases, 227
Histones, chromatin remodeling, 226–227
History of the Peloponnesian War (Thucydides), 809
HIV. See Human immunodeficiency virus
HIV-1, 334, 335, 337–338
HIV-2, 334, 335
HIV drugs, 212, 825
Hoatzin, 316
Holdfast, 408, 421
Holly, 883
Holometabolous insects, 495, 496, 497
Holoparasites, 544
Holoprosencephaly, 787, 806
Home ranges
behavioral partitioning, 841–842
defined, 842
See also Geographic range
Homeobox, 287–288
Homeodomain, 288
Homeostasis, 610–612
Homeotherms/Homeothermy
body temperature and thermoregulation, 610–611, 613–614
energy costs, 612–613
negative-feedback control, 619–620
Homeotic genes, 288–289
Homeotic mutations, 285
Homing pigeons, 835–836
Hominids, 515–517
Hominoids, 374
Homo, 515–517
Homo erectus, 515–516
Homo ergaster, 516
Homo floresiensis, 516
Homo habilis, 515, 516
Homo neanderthalensis, 5, 172, 517
Homo sapiens, 5, 517
See also Humans
Homogeneous Age, 861
“Homogenocene,” 861
Homogentisic acid, 195
Homogentisic acid oxidase, 195
Homologous features, 327–328
Homologous pairs (homologous chromosomes)
crossing over and recombination, 162–164
in meiosis, 140–145
in mitosis, 131
nondisjunction, 145
Homologous recombination, gene inactivation and, 262–263
Homologs, 131
Homoplasies, 328
Homospory, 431, 432
Homozygotes
defined, 153
test crosses, 154, 155
“Homunculus,” 788
Honey bees
eusociality, 840
perception of ultraviolet wavelengths, 723
sperm storage in queens, 782
thermoregulation, 613, 614
waggle dance, 837
Hooded mergansers, 344
Hopkins, William, 612
Hopping behavior, and ATP production in toads and frogs, 832–833
Horizons, 540
Horizontal cells, 720, 721
Horizontal gene transfer, 167–169
Horizontal stems, 531, 532, 585, 586
Hormone-based contraception, 781
Hormone deficiency diseases, 745–746
Hormone receptors, 737–738, 778
Hormones
actions on a target cell, 739
carrier proteins, 740
defined, 95, 557, 736
distance of action, 736
half-lives, 739
peripheral activation, 740
pulsed secretion, 743
receptor proteins, 737–738, 778
sequence of hormonal signaling, 739–740
Horns, directional selection in cattle, 311–312
Hornworts, 425, 426
Horse chestnut, 444
Horsehair worms, 476, 489–490
Horseshoe crabs, 491–492
Horsetails, 429–431
House mice
evolution of behavior, 829
See also Mice
Hoverfly, 894
Howard, L. O., 873
Hox genes
functions of, 286, 287
loss of forelimbs in snakes and, 292
spatial organization, 289
structure of, 287–288
Human behavior
neural basis of, 828
the problem of determinism, 829–830
Human-dominated ecosystems, 861, 862
Human embryos
development, 803
embryonic stem cells, 279
programmed cell death during morphogenesis, 284
Human epidermal growth factor receptor 2 (HER2), 148
Human genome
characteristics, 244
compared to the Neanderthal genome, 192
endogenous retroviruses, 398
key facts about, 247–248
potential benefits to medicine, 248–250
size, 317
transposons, 247, 248
Human Genome Project, 235, 236
Human growth hormone (hGH), 267, 267
Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), 397
alternative splicing in, 229
course of infection, 824–825
HIV-1, 334, 335, 337–338
HIV-2, 334, 335
life cycle, 225–226
phylogenetic analysis, 334, 335
protease inhibitors and, 212
Human Microbiome Project, 391
Human papillomavirus (HPV), 129, 148
Humans
allometric growth, 804
ancient DNA, 172
blastocyst implantation, 793, 794
brain evolution, 516
contraceptive methods, 781–782
digestive system, 636
effect of stabilizing selection on birth weight, 311
evolution, 374, 514–517
evolutionary relationship to chimpanzees, 42
excretory system, 753
eye, 717–721
gestation, 803
global impact on ecological systems, 861–862
heritability of height, 162
impact on biogeochemical cycles, 921–922, 923, 924–926
karyotype, 134–135
knockout mouse models of genetic diseases, 263
localized function and mapped regions in the cerebral hemispheres, 728–730
menstruation and the menstrual cycle, 778–779
microbiomes and, 391–392
milk digestion, 634–635
muscular segmentation, 475
pedigrees, 157–158
population growth and the Earth’s carrying capacity, 875–876
puberty, 746–747, 781, 869, 870
role in global warming and climate change, 928
sex determination in, 775
sex-linked inheritance of red–green color blindness, 166
sexual development, 746–747
Humerus, 292–293
Humidic terrestrial animals, 759
Hummingbird clearwing moth, 681
Humoral immune response
AIDS and, 824
antibody activation of defense mechanisms, 821–822
antibody structure and binding of antigens, 819–820
generation of antibody diversity, 820–821
phases of, 817–818
plasma cells, 819
suppression by regulatory T cells, 824
T-helper cells and, 823
Humus, 540
Hunchback protein, 286
Hurricanes, 927
Huxley, Thomas, 448
Hyacinth macaw, 894
Hyalophora cecropia, 748
Hybrid infertility, 353
Hybrid vigor, 160, 586
Hybrid zones, 354–355
Hybridization
lateral gene transfer, 319
prevention by prezygotic isolating mechanisms, 351–353
selection against through postzygotic isolating mechanisms, 351, 353–354
Hybrids
in agriculture, 586–587
defined, 152
monohybrid crosses, 152–153
in nucleic acid hybridization, 200
Hydrochloric acid, 637
Hydrogen
covalent bonding capacity, 22
electronegativity, 23
Hydrogen bonds
in DNA, 177
formation and properties, 22, 23–24
in proteins, 45, 46, 47
Hydrogen peroxide, 72, 591
Hydroid, 426
Hydrolagus colliei, 504
Hydrolases, 70
Hydrolysis, 26, 70–71
Hydrophilic molecules, 24
Hydrophobic interactions, 22
in phospholipid bilayers, 30, 31
in proteins, 47
Hydrophobic molecules, 24
Hydroponics, 538–539
Hydrostatic skeletons, 473, 690–691
Hydrothermal vents, 390, 396, 856
Hydroxyl group, 25
Hydrozoans, 478–480
Hymenoptera, 495
Hyperaccumulators, 601–602
Hyperosmotic regulators, 756, 757–758
Hyperpolarization, 706
Hypersensitive response, 592
Hypertension, 668
Hyperthermophilic bacteria, 385
Hypertonic solutions, 88
Hypertrophy, 694
Hyphae, 451–452
Hypoblast, 792, 794, 795–796, 803
I-21
“Hypophysis.” See Pituitary gland
Hyposmotic regulators, 756–757
Hypothalamic neurosecretory cells, 740–742
Hypothalamo–hypophysial portal system, 741–742, 776
Hypothalamus
hypothalamus–pituitary–adrenal cortex axis, 742–743
major hormones and their actions, 744
pituitary–hypothalamus connections and interactions, 740–743
puberty and the secretion of gonadotropin-releasing hormone, 747
regulation of mammalian reproduction, 776, 777
Hypothalamus–pituitary–adrenal cortex (HPA) axis, 742–743
Hypotheses, 12–13
Hypotonic solutions, 89
Hyracoidea, 514
Hyracotherium leporinum, 371
Hyraxes, 514
I
I band, 683, 684
Ibuprofen, 37
“Ice ages,” 374
Ice caps, 855
Ice-crawlers, 495
Identical twins, 847
IgA, 820
IgD, 820
IgE, 820
IgG, 820
IgM, 820
Igneous rocks, 359
Ignicoccus, 390
Ilex opaca, 883
Illicium floridanum, 445
Ilyanassa, 796
Image-forming eyes, 717–721
Imbibition, 556
Immediate system of ATP supply, 691, 692
Immigration, 876–878
Immune deficiency disorders, 824–825
Immunodeficiency viruses
molecular clock analysis, 337–338
phylogenetic analysis, 334, 335
Immunoglobulins
antigen binding, 819–820
classes of, 820
mechanisms of diversity, 820–821
structure, 819
See also Antibodies
Immunological memory, 816–817, 825–826
Immunology. See Animal defense systems
Impala antelopes, 827, 840
Imperfect flowers, 439, 574–575
Implantation
of the blastocyst, 777, 793, 794
delayed, 782–783
Imprinting. See Behavioral imprinting; Genomic imprinting
Impulse. See Action potentials; Nerve impulse
In vitro evolution, 321, 322
Inbreeding, mechanisms to prevent in plants, 576
Incomplete cleavage, 790, 792, 793
Incomplete dominance, 159
Incomplete metamorphosis, 495
Incus, 717, 718
Independent assortment
described, 144
genetic linkage and recombination, 162–164
Mendel’s law of, 154–156
Indeterminate growth, 526
Indian Ocean, 378
Indian Plate, 361
Indigo buntings, 831
Indirect development, 804–805
Indole-3-acetic acid, 559, 561
See also Auxin
Induced mutations, 189–190
Induced ovulation, 768, 777–778, 784
Induced plant defenses, 590–593, 594–596
Induced pluripotent stem cells (iPS cells), 279
Inducers, 217, 280–282
Inducible enzymes, 618
Inducible genes, 217, 222
Inducible operons, 218–220
Inducible promoters, 265
Induction
defined, 797
in development, 280–282
of the neural tube, 797–800, 801
primary embryonic induction, 799
Industrial biotechnology, 253
Industrial nitrogen fixation, 923
Infection thread, 542
Inferior vena cava, 668
Inflammation, 813–814
Information. See Genetic information
Inflorescence meristems, 579–580
Inflorescences, 439, 440
Influenza A virus, 397
Influenza epidemics, 298, 323
Influenza viruses, 298, 322–323, 397
Information
and genetic systems, 9
during development, 790
See also Bioinformatics, Genetic
information, Genome sequencing
Information storage, 9
Infrared wavelengths
and greenhouse effect, 926–927
perception of, 722–723
Ingroup, 329
Inheritance
blending and particulate hypotheses, 151
“chromosomal theory,” 173
cytoplasmic, 166–167
hemophilia, 150
human pedigrees, 157–158
law of segregation, 153–154
Mendelian, 151–158
probability and, 156–157
sex-linked, 164–165, 166
Inhibin, 779
Inhibiting hormones (IHs), 742, 743, 744
Inhibition, as an experimental manipulation, 76
Inhibitors, of receptors, 97
Inhibitory postsynaptic potentials (IPSPs), 712–713
Inhibitory synapses, 712
Initiation
of transcription, 198, 199
of translation, 208
Innate defenses
barriers and local agents, 812
cell signaling and, 810, 811, 813
compared to adaptive defenses, 811
defined, 810
inflammation, 813–814
overview, 810, 812
Inner cell mass, 793, 794, 795–796
Inner ear, 717–718, 719
Innervation
defined, 701
of muscle fibers, 685, 686
Inorganic fertilizers, 541
Insect wings
development, 289–290
evolution, 495–496
Insecticides, produced by genetically modified plants, 268–269
Insects
of the Carboniferous and Permian, 357
effect of atmospheric oxygen concentrations on body size, 357, 365, 366, 374
effects of body size on singing, 833
estimated number of existing species, 469
excretion of nitrogenous wastes, 756
flight and wing evolution, 495–496
flight muscles, 681, 696, 697
hormonal regulation of molting, 747–748
key features, 494
leg evolution, 291–292
major groups, 494–495
Malpighian tubules and urine formation, 764–766
metamorphosis, 495
orientation by a “polarization compass,” 837
plant defenses against herbivory, 593–597
thermoregulation, 613, 614
tracheal breathing systems, 653–654
urine/plasma ratio, 754
wing development, 289–290
Insertion mutations, 313, 820
Instars, 495
Insulin
medical uses, 267
produced through biotechnology, 266
regulation of blood nutrient levels, 640, 641, 744
structure, 738
Insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1), 251
Insulin receptors, 738
Integral membrane proteins, 83, 85
Integrase, 398
Integuments, 433–434, 435, 437, 577
Intercostal muscles, 655, 656, 657
“Intercropping,” 914
Interferons, 813
Interglacial periods, 362
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), 932
Interleukin-10, 824
Intermediate filaments, 73–74
Intermediate mesoderm, 800, 801
Internal environment
in animal innate defenses, 812–813
homeostasis, 610
interstitial fluid and tissue fluids, 609
Internal fertilization, 773–774
Internal juglar vein, 668
Internal membranes, of prokaryotic cells, 65
International Geophysical Year (IGY), 916, 932
Interneurons
function of, 724
spinal reflexes, 727
Interphase, 133, 134, 136
Interspecific competition
effect on fitness, 884
effect on species’ distributions, 887, 888
evolution and, 892, 893, 894
rarity advantage and species coexistence, 888–889
Interspecific interactions
classification by impact on fitness, 883–884
defined, 883
effect of environmental conditions on, 884–885
effects on per capita growth rates, 886
effects on population dynamics, 886–887
effects on species’
distributions, 887, 888
fungal cultivation by leaf-cutter ants, 882, 883, 884, 896–897
rarity advantage and species coexistence, 888–889
See also Species interactions
I-22
Interstitial cells, 736, 772, 776
Interstitial fluid
fluid compartments, 615–616
internal environment and, 609
open circulatory systems, 664, 665
Intertidal biomes, 856
Intertidal zone, 857
Intracellular digestive enzymes, 636
Intracellular fluid, 615
Intracellular receptors, 96
Intraluminal digestive enzymes, 636
Intraspecific competition
evolution and the increase of carrying capacity, 892, 893
impact on population growth, 885–886
resource partitioning and, 888
Intrauterine devices (IUDs), 781
Introduced species, 861–862 (see also Invasive species)
Introns, 200–202, 246
Invasive species, 891–892
Invasiveness, of pathogenic bacteria, 394
Inversions, 189
Invertebrates, inducible enzymes, 618
Iodine and iodine deficiency, 629, 745–746
Ion channel receptors, 97
Ion channels
action potentials and, 707–708
evolution in sodium channels, 321
membrane potentials and, 703–706
plant uptake of ions, 546–547
types and mechanisms, 89
See also Gated ion channels; Ligand-gated ion channels; Voltage-gated ion channels
Ion exchange, plant nutrient uptake and, 540–541
Ionic attractions, 22, 24–25
Ionic interactions, in proteins, 45, 47
Ionizing radiation, as a mutagen, 190
Ionotropic receptor cells
description of, 715
stretch receptor cells, 716
Ionotropic receptors, 712
Ions, membrane potentials and, 702–706
IPEX disease, 824
Iridium, 363, 364
Iridoid glycosides, 590
Iris (of the eye), 719, 720
Iron
as an electron acceptor, 113
as an enzyme cofactor, 52
in animal nutrition, 629, 682
binding by ferritin, 231
Irreversible inhibition, 54
Island biogeography, 907–908, 909, 911–912
Islets of Langerhans, 640
Isolating mechanisms
postzygotic, 351, 353–354
prezygotic, 351–353, 354, 356
Isoleucine, 43
Isomorphic alternation of generations, 415
Isopods, 493
Isoptera, 495
Isosmotic animals, 756
Isotonic solutions, 89
Isotopes, 19, 190, 191
Isozymes, 57
Iteroparous animals, 784
Ixodes scapularis, 864
See also Black-legged ticks
J
Jackson’s chameleon, 509
Jacob, François, 218, 291
Japanese horseshoe crab, 810
Jasmonic acid (jasmonate), 591, 595
Jawed fishes, fins, 503, 504
Jawless fishes, 501–503
Jaws, evolution in vertebrates, 503
Jelly coat, 774
Jellyfishes, 478–480
Jointed appendages/limbs
arthropods, 488, 491
countercurrent heat exchange, 674–675
crustaceans, 494
evolution in vertebrates, 505
evolutionary significance, 474
forelimb loss in snakes, 292
leg evolution in insects, 291–292
Joints, 689
Jones, Clive, 864
Joule, 625
Juan de Fuca plate, 361
Jumping bristletails, 494–495
Jurassic Park, 172
Jurassic period, 360–361, 370, 373
Juvenile hormone, 748
Juxtacrine signals, 95, 96
K
Kalanchoe, 585, 586
Kale, 303
Kangaroo rats, 759–760, 869
Kaposi’s sarcoma, 824–825
Karenia, 401
Karyogamy, 436, 459, 460, 461, 462
Karyotype, 134–135
Keeling, Dave, 916, 932
Keeling curve, 927, 928, 932
Kelp forests, 856
Kenaf, 521, 535
Keratin, 73
Keto group, 25α-Ketoglutarate, 117
Kickxellomycotin, 459
Kidneys
defined, 753
nitrogen excretion and, 755
regulation of the composition of body fluids, 752–755
urine production, 760–766
variation in range of action across animals groups, 754
Kilocalories, 625, 626
Kimura, Motoo, 313
Kinesin, 75, 76, 135
Kinetic energy, 31–32
Kinetochore microtubules, 135, 136
Kinetochores, 134, 135, 136, 137
Kinetoplastids, 410, 411–412
Kingdoms, 339
Kinorhynchs, 476, 490
Kinosternon subrubrum, 612
Kitasato, Shibasaburo, 815
Kiwis, 511
Klebsiella, 882
Klok, C. Jaco, 366
Knee-jerk reflex, 726–727
“Knockout” experiments, 263
Koch, Robert, 393
Koch’s postulates, 393
Kohlrabi, 303
Komodo dragon, 510
Korarchaeota, 388, 390
Krakatau, 363, 899–900, 901–903
Krebs cycle. See Citric acid cycle
Krogh, August, 646
Kuwait, 271
Kyoto Protocol, 932
L
Labrador retrievers, 160
Lac i gene, 219
Lac operon, 217–219
Lace lichens, 467
Lacewings, 495
Lactase, 634–635, 638
Lactic acid (lactate), 115, 116, 617
Lactic acid fermentation, 115, 116
Lactose
digestion, 634–635
transcriptional regulation of metabolism in E. coli, 216–218
LacZ gene, 260, 266
Lady slipper, 440
Lagging strand, in DNA replication, 183
Lagomorpha, 514
Lake Malawi cichlids, 343, 352
Lamarck, Jean-Baptiste, 299
Lampreys, 502, 503, 805
Lampshells, 483
Lancelets, 476, 500
Land plants
adaptations in the colonization of land, 423–428
evolution and diversification, 428–432
in the evolution of plants, 422
life cycles, 424–425
major groups, 421, 424
Landis, E. M., 675–676
Landscapes, 7, 846
Language, processing in the human brain, 729–730
Langurs, 315–316
Laqueus, 483
Large intestine, 637, 638–639
Larus argentatus, 828
Larvaceans, 500
Larvae, 804–805
Larynx, 654, 655
Late embryogenesis abundant (LEA) proteins, 599, 600
Lateral gene transfer
in bacteria, 167–169
description and advantages of, 319
discordant prokaryote gene trees and, 382–383
Lateral meristems, 527
Lateral plate mesoderm, 800–801, 802–803
Lateral roots, 529, 530
Latex, 596–597
Laticifers, 596–597
Latimeria chalumnae, 505
Latimeria menadoensis, 505
Latitudinal gradients
in net primary productivity, 917–919
in species richness, 906–907
Latitudinal temperature gradients
biomes and, 854
net primary productivity and, 918
Laurasia, 373, 859
Law of diffusion for gases, 645
Law of independent assortment
description of, 154–156
genetic linkage and recombination, 162–164
Law of mass action, 56, 97
Law of segregation, 153–154
Laws of thermodynamics, 32–34
LDL receptors, 94, 95
Le Chatelier’s principle, 56
LEA proteins, 599, 600
Leaching, 540
Leading strand, in DNA replication, 179, 182–183
Leaf-cutter ants
fungal cultivation by, 882, 883, 884, 896–897
in interaction webs, 889
nitrogen-fixing organisms and, 924
plant defensive compounds and, 894
Leafhoppers, 495
LEAFY gene, 580, 584
LEAFY protein, 285
Learning
defined, 830
effects on animal behavior, 830–831
synaptic plasticity and, 713–714
Leaves
abscission, 562
evolution of, 431
flowering stimulus and, 582, 583
function, 522
modifications, 531, 532
parasitic fungi, 454
primordia, 527, 530
salt glands, 601
stomatal control of water loss and gas exchange, 550–551
structural adaptations in xerophytes, 598
I-23
structure and function, 531
Lee, Ing-Ming, 588
Leeches, 484, 485
Left atrium, 668
Left ventricle, 668
Leghemoglobin, 544
Legionella pneumophila, 381
Legumes, nitrogen fixation, 542
Leiobunum rotundum, 492
Leishmania major, 411
Leishmaniasis, 411
Lemurs, 514
Lens, 719, 720
Leopard frogs
atrazine experiments, 14
temporal isolation, 351, 352
Lep gene, 848
Lepas anatifera, 493
Lepidoptera, 495
Lepidosaurs, 508–510
Lepiotaceae, 882
Leptin, 639–640
Leptonycteris curasoae, 513
Leptosiphon, 336, 337
Leptospira, 381
Lesser grain borer, 872
Leucine, 43
Leucine zipper, 232
Leukocytes, 677
See also White blood cells
Levin, Donald, 353–354
Lewis, Cynthia, 417
Leydig cells, 736, 772, 776
Libellula depressa, 497
Lice, 495
Lichens, 455–456, 457, 466, 467
Licking and grooming behavior, 831–832
Life
characteristics of biological organization, 6–9
evolutionary tree of life, 4–5
flow, exchange, storage, and use of genetic information, 9–10
generalization of knowledge and model organisms, 5–6
major steps in the origin and evolution of, 2–4
presence of water and, 18
Life cycles
amphibians, 507–508
animal reproduction and, 782–784
fungal, 458–465
modes of cell reproduction, 130–132
Life expectancy, 869
Life histories
description of, 867–868
diversity in, 868–869
effect of resources and physical conditions on, 869–870
impact of global climate change on, 929–930, 931
species’ distributions and, 870–872
Life-history tradeoffs, 870
Ligand-gated ion channels
as ion channel receptors, 97
ionotropic receptors, 712
structure and function, 89, 705, 706
Ligand-gated receptors, at neuromuscular junctions, 711
Ligands, 89, 95, 97
Light
absorption by chlorophyll, 121–122
detection in visual systems, 718–722
and Earth’s radiation balance, 926–927
photobiology, 120–121
photochemistry, 119–120
photomorphogenesis in plants, 567–570
as a resource, 869
Light-harvesting complexes, 121–122
Light microscopes, 62
Light reactions, 119
Light sheet microscopy, 790
Lilium, 574
Lima (British ship), 378
Limbs. See Jointed appendages/limbs
Limestone, 418, 924
Limiting resource, 884
Limnetic zone, 857
Limosa lapponica, 837–838
Limulus polyphemus, 492
LIN-3, 281, 282, 283
Lin mutations, 230
Lindley, John, 420
Lineage, 326, 345
Lineage species concept, 345
Linnaean classification, 338–339
Linnaean Society of London, 300
Linnaeus, Carolus, 338, 344
Linoleic acid, 30, 627
Lipases, 635
Lipid monolayers, 389
Lipid-soluble vitamins, 628
Lipids
as animal storage compounds, 626
in archaea membranes, 388–389
catabolic interconversions, 116
defined, 29
digestion, 635, 638
as food molecules, 626
macromolecular structure, 26
membrane lipids, 83–85
phospholipids, 30, 31
triglycerides, 29–30
Lipoprotein aggregates, 638
Littoral zone, 857
Litzgus, Jacqueline, 612
Liver
in digestion, 636, 637
endocrine control of, 639
epinephrine-activated glycogen breakdown, 99, 100–101
Liver enzymes, 618
Liverworts, 425, 426
Lizards
breathing system, 652
impact of global climate change on, 871, 930–931
key features, 508, 510
Loam, 540
Lobe-limbed vertebrates, 504, 505–506
Loboseans, 412
Lobsters
circulatory system, 664, 665
hearts, 667
Locomotion
appendages and, 474
bipedal, 516
body cavity and, 473
body segmentation and, 473–474, 475
lophotrochozoans, 481
measuring the efficiency and energy costs of, 605
Locus, 162
Locusta, 832
Locusta migratoria, 593
Locusts, 593
Loggerhead sea turtles, 838
Long-day plants, 581–582
Long-nosed insectivores, 514
Long-tailed widowbird, 306, 307
Long-term memory, 232
Long-Term Watershed Protection Plan (New York), 910
Longistigma caryae, 552
Loop of Henle, 763, 765
Lophodytes cucullatus, 344
Lophophores, 480–481, 483
Lophotrochozoans
annelids, 484–485
brachiopods and phoronids, 483–484
bryozoans, 481
cleavage, 791
flatworms, 481–482
key features, 480–481
major subgroups, 476
mollusks, 485–487
ribbon worms, 482, 483
rotifers, 482
Lorenz, Konrad, 830–831
Loriciferans, 476, 490
Lorises, 514
Loss-of-function mutations, 187, 188, 285
Low-density lipoproteins (LDLs), 94–95
Low-GC Gram positives, 384, 385
LRT retrotransposons, 246, 247
“Lucy,” 515, 516
Luehea seemannii, 469
Lung surfactant, 652
Lungfishes, 317, 505–506
Lungs
gas exchange membranes, 646
structure and function, 646, 647
surface area of gas exchange membranes, 649
ventilation, 646–647, 651–652
See also Mammalian lungs
Luteinizing hormone (LH)
actions of, 744
menstrual cycle, 778, 779
regulation of mammalian reproduction, 776, 777–779, 781, 784
in sexual development, 746–747
support of spermatogenesis, 781
as a tropic hormone, 741
Lycoperdon perlatum, 453
Lycophytes, 429, 431
Lycopodiophyta, 424
Lycopodium, 431
Lycopodium annotinum, 429
Lycosa, 492
Lyell, Charles, 300
Lymantria dispar, 864
Lyme disease, 864, 878, 880
Lymph nodes, 676
Lymphatic system, 676
Lymphocytes
diversity and clonal selection, 816, 817
functions of, 811
specificity, 816
types of, 811
Lymphoma tumors, 824–825
Lynch, Carol, 829
Lysine, 43
Lysogenic phase, 221
Lysosomes, 70–71
Lysozyme, 812
Lysozyme evolution, 314–316
Lythrum alatum, 891
Lythrum salicaria, 891
Lytic life cycle, 221
M
M band, 683, 684
M checkpoint, 139
M phase, 133, 134, 138
MacArthur, Robert H., 907
Macrobiotus sapiens, 491
Macrocystis, 408
Macrogametophyte, 442, 443
Macromolecules
carbohydrates, 27–29 (see also Carbohydrates)
formation, 26
lipids, 29–31 (see also Lipids)
movement across biological membranes, 93–95
See also Nucleic acids; Proteins
Macronucleus, 414, 415
Macronutrients, in plant nutrition, 538
Macroperipatus torquatus, 491
Macrophages, 811, 814, 817
Macroscelidea, 514
Macular degeneration, 263–264
“Magerwiesen,” 855
Magnesium, 629
Magnetic field, animal orientation and, 836, 837, 838
Magnolia, 445
Magnoliids, 445
Magnuson, John, 661
Maidenhair tree, 436
Maimonides, Moses, 150
Maintenance methyltransferase, 228
I-24
Maize. See Corn
Major grooves, of DNA, 177, 178
Major histocompatibility complex (MHC), 822–823, 824
Malaria, 415–416, 468
Malate, 111
Malate dehydrogenase, 111
Malay Archipelago, 857–858
Males
primary and accessory reproductive organs, 770
secondary sexual characteristics, 770–771
sex organs in mammals, 780–781
Malleus, 717, 718
Malnutrition, 628–629, 832
Malpighi, Marcello, 552
Malpighian tubules, 764–766
Malthus, Thomas, 876
“Malting,” 560–561
Maltose, 126
Malus, 447
Mammalian lungs
mechanism of ventilation, 656, 657
neural control of breathing rhythm, 656, 657
structure and respiratory gas exchange, 654, 655
tidal, respiratory minute, and residual volumes, 656
Mammals
breathing system, 654–659
circulatory system, 666
ears and hearing, 717–718, 719
eutherians, 512–514
evolution, 511
excretion of nitrogenous wastes, 756
forebrain evolution, 727–728
foregut fermentation and lysozyme evolution, 314–316
hearts, 667–671, 672
hibernation, 614–615
hormonal regulation of physiological systems, 744–747
hormonal regulation of reproduction, 776–781, 784
innate and adaptive defenses, 811
key features, 511–512
localized function and mapped regions in the cerebral hemispheres, 728–730, 731
marsupials, 512, 513
olfactory receptor cells, 716–717
positive feedback in the birth process, 620
seasonal reproductive cycles, 784
stem cells, 277–279
thermoregulation, 613–614
tidally ventilated lungs, 652
transformation experiments with mammalian cells, 174, 175
urine/plasma ratio, 754
urine production by the kidneys, 763–764, 765
Mammary glands, 512, 780
Mandibles, 492–493
Mandibulates, 492–494
Manduca sexta, 593
Manganese, 629
Mangold, Hilde, 799
Mangrove forests, 856
Mangroves, 599
Mannose, 27
Manta, 630
Manta rays, 630
Mantidfllies, 495
Mantids, 495
Mantle, 485, 486, 487
Mantodea, 495
Mantophasmatodea, 495
Map units, 164
Marchantia polymorpha, 426
Marine annelids, 518
Marine biomes, 856–857
Marine invertebrates, isosmotic relationship to their environment, 756
Marmota monax, 615
Marrella splendens, 369
Mars, 18
Marsilea mutica, 429
Marsupials, 512, 513
Maryland Mammoth tobacco, 580
Mass extinctions
of the Cretaceous, 363, 373
defined, 361
meteorites and, 363
of the Ordovician, Devonian, and Permian periods, 372, 374
from volcanoes, 363
Mass number, 19
Mass spectrometry, 238, 239
Mast cells, 811, 813, 814
“Master clock,” 621
“Master gland.” See Pituitary gland
Mastocarpus papillatus, 423
Mate choice, behavioral isolation and, 352, 353
Maternal care, effect on rat pups, 831–832
Maternal effect genes, 286, 287
Mating calls, behavioral isolation in frogs and, 351–352
Matter
atoms and molecules, 21
cycling of, through ecological systems, 920–921, 920
Earth as a closed system with respect to, 920
need for matter by organisms, 606–607, 627–629
See also Materials; Matter as related to energy
Matter as related to energy, 6, 606–607, 625–627
Matthaei, Henirich, 203
Matz, Mikhail, 325, 341
Maxillipeds, 494
Maximum likelihood method, 332
Mayer, Ernst, 344
Mayflies, 495, 496, 497, 805
MC1R gene, 192
mecA gene, 194
Mechanical isolation, 351
Mechanical weathering, 540
Mechanoreceptors
auditory hair cells, 717–718, 719
on the nose tentacles of star-nosed moles, 699
stretch receptor cells, 716
Mecoptera, 495
Medicinal leech, 485
Medicine
advances in, and human population growth, 870
genome sequencing and, 250–251
human genomics and, 248–250
molecular evolution and, 322, 323
products produced through biotechnology, 266–267
See also Cancer therapies
Mediterranean climate, 854
Medulla oblongata, 656, 657, 659, 727
Medusa, 478, 479
Megagametophyte
in angiosperms, 575
in heterospory, 431, 432
Megaloptera, 495
Meganeuropsis permiana, 357
Megaphyll, 431
Megascops asio, 830, 831
Megasporangia
in angiosperms, 439
in heterospory, 432
in seed plants, 433–434
Megasporangium, 437, 438
Megaspores
in heterospory, 431, 432
in seed plants, 433
Megastrobilus, 437, 438
Meiosis
advantages and disadvantages of sexual recombination, 318–319
compared to mitosis, 141
crossing over and genetic recombination, 162–164
crossing over and independent assortment, 140, 142–145
events of, 141, 142
gametogenesis in animal reproduction, 771
generation of genetic diversity in sexual reproduction, 130–131
meiotic chromosomal errors, 145–146
overall functions of, 141
reduction of chromosome number, 140, 141, 142
in sexual life cycles, 130–131
spontaneous mutations, 189
Meiosis I, 140, 141, 142, 143–144
Meiosis II, 140, 141, 142, 143
Melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH), 741, 744
Melanopsin, 722
Melatonin, 737, 744
Membrane-associated digestive enzymes, 636
Membrane potentials
action potentials, 707–708
defined, 703
graded or all-or-none changes in, 706–707
measuring, 703
of photoreceptor cells, 720
principles of electricity, 702–703
summation, 712–713
Membrane receptors, 96–98
Membranes
structure of phospholipid bilayers, 30, 31
See also Biological membranes; Cell membrane(s); Extraembryonic membranes; Gas exchange membranes
Memory, 713–714
Memory cells, 817
Menadione, 682
Mendel, Gregor, 151–157, 301
Menstrual cycle, 778–779
Menstruation, 778
Meristem culture, 586
Meristem identity genes, 580, 584
Meristems
in plant growth and development, 522, 527, 528, 529, 530
as stem cells, 276–277
See also Apical meristems; Floral meristems; Ground meristem
Merriam’s kangaroo rat, 885
Mesenchymal stem cells, 278
Mesenchyme, 473, 474
Mesoderm
differentiation, 800–801
in gastrulation, 794, 795, 796, 797
tissues and organs formed from, 797
in triploblastic embryos, 472
Mesoglea, 477
Mesophyll, 531
Mesozoic era, 360–361, 373
Mesquite, 845, 889
Messenger RNA (mRNA)
alternative splicing, 229, 230
analysis of expression patterns with DNA microarrays, 264–265
as cytoplasmic determinants, 280
degradation caused by microRNAs, 230, 231
formation in transcription, 197–202
genetic code, 203–206
introns and exons in precursor RNA, 200–201
I-25
processing before translation, 201–202
regulation of translation, 230–231
translation of, 206–210
Messner, Reinhold, 643
Metabolic equivalent of task (MET), 626
Metabolic pathways
enzymes and the regulation of, 53–57
feedback inhibition, 55, 56, 117
general principles governing, 106
of prokaryotes, 394–395
Metabolic pool, 117
Metabolic rate
of birds, 511
body size and, 609
circulatory function and, 662
defined, 607
effect of physical activity on, 608–609
of homeothermy, 612–613
quantifying, 607–608
Metabolic systems, 116–118
Metabolic water, 760
Metabolism
anabolic and catabolic reactions, 32
defined, 32
enzymes and the regulation of, 53–57
See also Anabolic reactions/pathways; Catabolic reactions/pathways
Metabolomes, 239, 250
Metabolomics, 239, 250
Metabotropic receptor cells
description of, 715
olfactory receptor cells, 716–717
photoreceptors, 718–719, 720, 722
Metabotropic receptors, 712
Metacarpals, 292–293
Metacentric chromosomes, 346
Metagenomics, 241
Metal ions
as electron acceptors, 113
as enzyme cofactors, 52
Metamorphosis, 495, 805
Metaphase
meiosis I, 141, 143–144
meiosis II, 142
mitosis, 135, 136, 137, 141
Metaphase plate, 137
Metapopulation, 876
Metarhizium anisopliae, 468
Meteorites, 363, 364
Methane
in the carbon cycle, 924, 925, 926
as a greenhouse gas, 927, 928
produced by methanogens, 389
Methanocaldococcus, 65
Methanogens, 389
Methicillin, 169
“Methicillin resistant S. aureus” (MRSA), 194, 213
Methionine, 43
Methyl salicylate, 592
Methylation, 227–2295-Methylcytosine, 190–191, 227–229
Methyltransferases, 255
Metzgar, Lee, 830
Mexican blue spiny lizards, 871, 872
Mexican Plateau, 859
Mexico. See U.S.–Mexico Borderlands
Mice
evolution of behavior, 829
“knockout” models, 263
Ob/ob mice, 640, 848
seasonal reproduction, 784
white-footed mice, 830, 841, 864
Microbial eukaryotes
defined, 405
endosymbionts, 416, 417
pathogenic, 415–416
Microbial rhodopsin, 390
Microbiomes, 391–392, 632, 846
Microcirculation, 663–664, 673–674
Microfilaments
in cell movement, 76
contractile ring, 135
cytoplasmic segregation in the egg and, 280
structure and function, 73, 74
Microgametophyte
in angiosperms, 442, 443, 575–576
in heterospory, 432
Micronucleus, 414, 415
Micronutrients, in plant nutrition, 538, 539
Microorganisms
nutritionally important animal–microbe symbioses, 630–632, 641
See also Bacteria; Gut microbiome; Prokaryotes
Microphylls, 429, 431
Micropyle, 437, 438
Microraptor gui, 511
MicroRNAs (miRNAs), 229–230, 231, 263
Microscopy, 62
Microsporangia
in angiosperms, 439
in heterospory, 432
in seed plants, 433
Microspores
in heterospory, 431–432
in seed plants, 433
Microsporidia, 459–460
Microstrobilus, 437, 438
Microtubules
cilia and flagella, 74–75
cytoplasmic segregation in the egg and, 280
mitotic spindle, 135
structure and function, 74
Microvilli, 637, 638, 717
Midbrain, 798
Middle ear, 717, 718
Midgut, 637–638, 639
Midgut fermenters, 637
Miescher, Friedrich, 173
Migration
adjustments of migratory behaviors, 828
defined, 838
mechanisms of long-distance migrations, 837–838
orientation by the Earth’s magnetic field, 837
Migratory locusts, 832
Milk
digestion, 634–635
production by humans, 780
production by marsupials, 512
production by prototherians, 512
Milkweeds, 596–597
“Milky seas,” 378
Miller, Stanley, 34, 35
Miller–Urey experiment, 34, 35
Millimeters of mercury (mm Hg), 645
Millipedes, 493
Mimicry, 894, 895
Mimiviruses, 397, 399
Mimulus aurantiacus, 440–441, 442
Mineral nutrients
in animal nutrition, 629, 682
in plant nutrition, 538–541
Mineralocorticoids, 744
Minimal genome, 242, 243
Minor grooves, of DNA, 177, 178
Miscarriages, 145
Mischocuttarus flavitarsis, 497
Mismatch repair, 185
Missense substitutions, 205, 313
See also Nonsynonymous substitutions
Mites, 492
Mitochondria
absence in microsporidia, 459
endosymbiosis in the evolution of, 4, 402, 404
in eukaryotic cells, 66, 67
genetic material and cytoplasmic inheritance, 166–167
in insect flight muscle, 697
structure and function, 71–72
Mitosis
in asexual reproduction, 130
compared to meiosis, 141
defined, 133
products of, 134
prophase, 134–135
stages of, 134, 135, 136–137
Mitosomes, 459–460
Mitotic spindle, 135
Mnemiopsis leidyi, 477
Model organisms
genomes, 243–245
importance to biological research, 6
in transformation, 258
Moderately repetitive sequences, 246, 247
Modularity, in development, 290, 291
Molds, 452, 464
Molecular clocks, 314, 337–338
Molecular evolution
evolution of genome size and organization, 317–318
heterozygote advantage, 316–317
medical uses, 322, 323
molecular clocks, 314, 337–338
neutral theory of, 313–314
types of mutations affecting, 312–313
in vitro evolution and, 321, 322
Molecules, chemical bonds and the formation of, 20–26
Moles, 514
Mollusks
coelom, 480
hemocyanin, 678
key features, 485–487
major subgroups, 476
red tides, 401
undiscovered living species, 518
Molothrus ater, 884
Molting, 487–488, 747–748
Monarch butterflies, 805
Monilophytes, 422, 424, 429–431
Monocots
defined, 446
early shoot development, 557
prop roots, 531, 532
representatives of, 445, 446
root structure, 529, 530
secondary growth, 534
stele, 529
structural characteristics, 522, 523
vascular bundles, 531
Monocytes, 811
Monod, Jacques, 218
Monoecious plants, 439–440
Monoecious species, 574, 575, 576
Monohybrid crosses, 152–153
Monomers, 26
Monophyletic groups, 339
Monosaccharides
absorption in the midgut, 638
defined, 27
glycosidic linkages, 27
polymers of, 27–28
types, 27
Monosomy, 145
Monoterpenes, 594
Monozygotic twins, 228 (see also Identical twins)
Montreal Protocol, 191, 932
Morels, 464
Morgan, Thomas Hunt, 162–165, 166, 301
Morphogenesis
body segmentation in the fruit fly, 285–288
in development, 274
morphogen gradients, 283
organ placement in plants, 284, 285
pattern formation and, 283
programmed cell death, 284
spatial differences in gene expression and, 283
I-26
Morphogens, 283
Morphological species concept, 344, 345
Morphology
evolution of, 291–293
morphological species concept, 344, 345
phylogenetic analyses and, 331
Mortality, 868
Mosaic development, 791
Mosquitoes, 416
Mosses
characteristics of, 425–426
life cycle, 426–428
Moths
diversity in, 496, 497
number of species, 495
olfactory receptor cells of antennae, 717
Motor end-plate. See Neuromuscular junctions
Motor neurons
function of, 724
spinal reflexes, 726–727
Motor proteins
with actin filaments, 73
chromosome movement in mitosis, 135
with microtubules, 75, 76
Motor unit, of prokaryotic flagella, 65
Motrin, 37
Mount Everest, 643, 660
Mount Pinatubo, 363
Mountains, impact on weather, 852–853
Mouth
evolution of vertebrate jaws, 503
origin in animal development, 794, 796
Mouthparts
chelicerae, 491
mandibles, 492–493
MRSA. See “Methicillin resistant S. aureus”
Mucopolysaccharides, 528
Mucoromycotina, 459
Mucosa, 635, 636
Mucus, 812
Mud turtle, 612
Muir, John, 890
“Muir effect,” 890–891
Muller, Hermann Joseph, 319, 346
Muller’s ratchet, 319
Multicellular colonies, 471, 472
Multicellularity
divergence during the Cambrian, 368
in the evolution of life, 4
hierarchical levels of organization, 6
multiple origins in eukaryotes, 405–406
Multinucleate embryos, 285–286
Multiorgan systems, 616–617
Multiple fruits, 444
Multiplicative population growth, 872–876
Multipotency
defined, 275
multipotent stem cells, 278–279
Murphy, James, 215
Mus musculus, 829
Muscle cells
contraction, 681 (see also Muscle contraction)
as excitable cells, 700
excitation, 685, 686
neuromuscular junctions, 710–711
slow oxidative and fast glycolytic cells, 692–693
Muscle contraction
activation, 711
contraction distinguished from shortening, 682
insect flight muscles, 681, 696, 697
sliding-filament theory, 682–688
Muscle fibers
innervation, 685, 686
muscle contraction and, 682–688
neuromuscular junctions, 710–711
structure, 682–684
Muscle precursor cells, 282
Muscles
cardiac muscle, 695 (see also Myocardium)
contraction (see Muscle contraction)
hydrostatic skeletons and, 690–691
insect flight muscles, 681, 696, 697
modified muscle and fish electric organs, 696–697
power output and ATP supply, 691–692
slow oxidative and fast glycolytic cells, 692–693
smooth muscle, 695–696
stretch receptor cells, 716
See also Red swimming muscles; Skeletal muscles
Muscular dystrophy, 251–252
Mushrooms, 452
Musk thistle, 892
Mussels, 487, 630, 895
Mutagens
avoiding mutagenic substances and radiation, 191
defined, 187
induced mutations, 189–190
natural or artificial, 191
transposons as, 242, 243
Mutation rates, 302
Mutations
chromosomal, 188–189
costs and benefits, 191
defined, 186
of DNA, 178
effects on polypeptide sequences, 205–206
evolution and, 4, 9, 191
experimental manipulations, 76
generation of genetic variation and, 158, 302–303, 312–313
Hardy–Weinberg equilibrium and, 308
natural selection and, 304–305
phenotype and, 187
point mutations, 187–188
somatic or germline, 186
spontaneous or induced, 189–190
transposons and, 242, 243, 247
vulnerability of base pairs to, 190–191
Mutualisms
benefits to individuals and, 894–896
effects on fitness, 883, 884
effects on species, 886
fungi and, 456–457
Mutualistic fungi, 455–457 (see also Mycorrhizae)
Myanthus, 420, 447
Mycelium, 451–452
Mycobacterium tuberculosis, 385
Mycoplasma capricolum, 60
Mycoplasma genitalium, 240–241, 242, 243, 244, 317
Mycoplasma mycoides, 242
Mycoplasma mycoides JCVI-syn1.0, 60
Mycoplasmas, 384, 385
Mycorrhizae, 456–457, 466, 896
Myelin, 85, 702
Myelinated axons, 702, 709
Myoblasts, 282
Myocardium
coronary circulatory system, 670–671
description of, 667, 695
mammalian heartbeat, 668–669, 670, 671
MyoD, 282
Myofibrils, 682–684
Myogenic hearts
cardiac cycle, 667–668
chambers, 667, 668
defined, 667
electrocardiograms, 671, 672
heartbeats, 668–670, 671
Myoglobin
gene duplication in the evolution of, 320
globin gene family, 246
in slow oxidative cells, 692=693
Myometrium, 777, 780
Myosin
contractile ring, 135
sliding-filament theory of muscle contraction, 682–688
structure, 684
Myosin filaments
sliding-filament theory of muscle contraction, 682–688
structure, 684–685
in the structure of myofibrils, 682–684
Myostatin, 251–252
Myriapods, 476, 492–493, 518
Myrmecophaga tridactyla, 340
Mytilus edulis, 630, 895
Myxameobas, 413, 414
N
“N-P-K” percentages, 541
Naegleria, 410
Naked mole rats, 840
Nanaloricus mysticus, 490
Nanoarchaeota, 388, 390
Nanos protein, 286
Narcissus, 446
Nasal cavity, 716
Nasal passages, 654, 655
Natural history, 12, 862
Natural killer cells, 811, 813, 822
Natural Resource Conservation Service, 553
Natural selection
actions on quantitative traits, 310–312
adaptations and, 10–11, 304–305
Darwin’s description of, 10
defined, 300
and ecology, 846, 892–896
evolution and, 302
Nautiluses, 487
Navigation
celestial, 831
defined, 834
honey bee waggle dance, 837
trial following and path integration, 834–835
Neandertal Genome Project, 192
Neanderthals, 5, 192
Nearctic biogeographic region, 858, 859, 861
Nebela collaris, 412
Neck evolution, in giraffes, 290
Necrosis, 146
Negative feedback (see also Density dependence)
defined, 8
in endocrine axes, 743
in homeothermy, 619–620
stretch receptor cells and, 716
Negative-sense RNA, 396
Negative-sense single-stranded RNA viruses, 396–397
Nematocysts, 478, 884
Nematodes, 476
genome characteristics, 244–245
key features, 488–489
predatory fungi and, 455, 456
undiscovered living species, 518
See also Caenorhabditis elegans
Nemerteans, 482, 483
Neocallimastigomycota, 459
Neognaths, 511
Neopterans, 495, 496, 497
Neoteny, 506, 516, 517
Neotoma, 903
Neotropical biogeographic region, 858, 859, 861
Nephrons
of amphibians, 761–763
of mammals, 763–764, 765
urine production, 752–753, 760–764, 765
Nereis succinea, 475
I-27
Nerium oleander, 598
Nernst equation, 704–705
Nerve impulse
in cardiac muscle, 695
excitation of muscle fibers, 685, 686
production and propagation, 706–708
See also Action potentials
Nerve nets, 474, 723
Nerves, 701
Nervous systems
action potentials, 702–709 (see also Action potentials)
in animal body plans, 474–475
basis of animal behavior, 828
centralization and cephalization, 723–724
characteristics and interactions of nervous and endocrine control, 733, 734–736, 749
enteric nervous system, 635, 636
glial cells in, 701–702
nerve nets, 723
nerves, 701
neurons in, 700–701
neurotransmitters, 711–712
neurulation, 797–800, 801
pituitary gland–hypothalamus connections and interactions, 740–743
sensory processes, 714–723
synapses, 700, 709–714 (see also Synapses)
types of neurons in, 724
in vertebrates and arthropods, 724–725
See also Autonomic nervous system; Brain; Central nervous system
Net primary productivity (NPP)
defined, 903
energy flow through ecological communities, 903, 904
factors affecting in aquatic ecosystems, 919
latitudinal gradients in, 917–919
as a measure of ecosystem function, 917
species diversity and, 905–906
in the tropics, 906
Netherlands Cancer Institute, 264–265
Netrostoma setouchina, 479
Neural crest cells, 800, 801
Neural groove, 798
Neural plate, 798
Neural tube
holoprosencephaly, 806
induction and differentiation, 797–800, 801
Neurogenic hearts, 671–672
Neuroglia. See Glial cells
Neurohemal organ, 736
Neurohormones, 737
Neurohypophysis. See Posterior pituitary
Neuromuscular junctions
description of, 710–711
excitation of muscle fibers, 685, 686
Neuron-to-neuron synapses, 712–713
Neurons
action potentials, 700, 707–708
anatomical regions, 701
axon hillocks, 706, 713
common features and functions of, 700–701
as excitable cells, 700
function in nervous control, 735
innervation of cells, 701
membrane potentials, 702–707
nerves and, 701
summation of postsynaptic potentials, 712–713
synapses, 709–714 (see also Synapses)
transformation of fibroblasts into, 224
types of, 724
Neuropterida, 495
Neurosecretions, 737
Neurosecretory cells, 736–737, 740–742
Neurotransmitter receptors, 712
Neurotransmitters
categories of, 711–712
at chemical synapses, 709
distance of action, 736
at neuromuscular junctions, 710
Neurulation, 797–800, 801
Neutral theory of molecular evolution, 313–314
Neutrons, 19
Neutrophils, 811
New World monkeys, 515
New York City water supply, 910
Nexin, 75
NFAT proteins, 223
Niacin, 628
Niche, 904
Niche complementarity, 906
Nickel, 539
Nicotinamide adenine dinculeotide phosphate (NADPH), 122, 123
Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NADH)
in aerobic cellular respiration, 110, 111, 112, 113
as an electron carrier in redox reactions, 107–108
in anaerobic cellular respiration, 115, 116
as a cofactor, 52
coupling of NADH oxidation to ATP production, 108, 111, 112
Nicotine, 594
Nicotine595
Night length, flowering and, 581–582
Niphates digitalis, 648
Nirenberg, Marshall, 203
Nitrate, 395, 922
Nitric oxide, 591, 780
Nitrifiers, 395–396
Nitrite, 395
Nitrobacter, 395, 396
Nitrogen
covalent bonding capacity, 22
electronegativity, 23
global cycle (see Nitrogen cycle)
Nitrogen-14, 358
Nitrogen cycle
global cycling, 922–923, 924, 925
prokaryotes and, 395–396
Nitrogen deposition, 923
Nitrogen fertilizers, 541, 923
Nitrogen fixation
biological, 922, 923
industrial and agricultural, 923
organisms in leaf-cutter nests, 924
plant–bacteria symbioses, 542, 543–544
Nitrogen fixers
prokaryotes, 395
symbiosis with plants, 373
Nitrogenase, 543, 544
Nitrogenous waste excretion, 755–756
Nitrosococcus, 395
Nitrosomonas, 395
Nitrous acid, 190
Nitrous oxide
global warming and, 928
as a greenhouse gas, 927, 928
in nitrogen cycling, 923
Nod factors, 542
Nodes, on phylogenetic trees, 326
Nodes of Ranvier, 709
Noggin, 799
Non-avian reptiles, circulatory system, 666–667
Non-LTR retrotransposons, 246, 247
Noncoding DNA sequences, 318
Noncompetitive inhibitors, 54, 55
Noncovalent bonds, in allosteric enzymes, 54, 55
Noncyclic electron transport, 122–123
Nondisjunction, 145
Nonneural endocrine cells, 736, 737
Nonpolar substances, impact on protein structure, 47
Nonprotein amino acids, 594
Nonrandom mating, impact on genotype or allele frequencies, 306, 307
Nonself, distinguishing from self, 816, 824
Nonsense mutations, 205–206
Nonshivering thermogenesis, 614
Nonsynonymous substitutions defined, 313
evolution of flu strains and, 323
in positive and purifying selection, 314–316
Nonvascular land plants
characteristics of, 425–426
defined, 421
in the evolution of plants, 422
gametophyte and sporophyte, 425
life cycle, 426–428
major groups, 424
Norepinephrine, 726
Norepinephrine (noradrenaline), 739, 744
North American plate, 361
North Atlantic Drift, 851–852
North Atlantic Subtropical Gyre, 838
North Star, 831
Northeast trade winds, 851
Norton, E. F., 643
Nose tentacles, of star-nosed moles, 699, 730, 731
Nostoc punctiforme, 386
Nothofagus, 858–859
Notochord
chordates, 500
evolutionary relationships in animals and, 331, 332
holoprosencephaly, 806
neural tube induction, 797–800, 801
tunicates, 501
Novel communities, 931
Nuclear envelope, 68, 135
Nuclear localization signal (NLS), 212
Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy, 239
Nuclear pore, 66
Nuclear transfer experiments, 276
Nucleic acid hybridization, 200–201
Nucleic acids
base pairing, 38–40, 41
defined, 38
excretion of nitrogenous wastes, 755–756
genetic information and, 9
macromolecular structure, 26
nucleotide structure, 38
in the origin and evolution of life, 2
types of, 38
See also Deoxyribonucleic acid; Ribonucleic acid
Nucleoid, 64
Nucleolus
eukaryotic cells, 66, 67
function, 68
Nucleosomes, 226–227
Nucleotide bases, spontaneous mutations and, 189
Nucleotide sequences, evolutionary relationships and, 41–42
Nucleotide substitutions, 312–313
Nucleotides
in DNA, 174, 176
in DNA replication, 179–180
genetic information and, 9
in the structure of nucleic acids, 38
tautomers, 189, 190
I-28
Nucleus (of atoms), 19
Nucleus (of cells)
discovery of DNA in, 173
in eukaryotic cells, 66, 67
in the evolution of eukaryotic cells, 4
function of, 63
nuclear totipotency in animals, 276, 277
in prophase, 134
structure and function, 68
Null hypothesis, 14
Nutrient deficiencies
in animals, 628–629
in plants, 538
Nutrients
essential nutrients in animal nutrition, 627–628, 629, 641
net primary productivity and, 919
in plant nutrition, 538–541
See also Animal nutrition; Plant nutrition
Nutritional categories, 394–395
Nymphaea, 440
O
Ob/ob mice, 640, 848
Obesity, 847, 848
Obligate aerobes, 394
Obligate anaerobes, 394
Obligate parasites, 453
Occipital lobe, 728
Oceanic islands, variation in species richness, 907–908, 909
Oceans
circulation patterns and upwellings, 851–852
and climate, 851–852
net primary productivity of the open ocean, 919
sea levels changes through Earth’s history, 361, 362
temperature changes, 852
Octet rule, 20
Octopus bimaculoides, 487
Octopus vulgaris, 783
Octopuses, 487, 774, 783
Odd-toed hoofed mammals, 514
Odonata, 495
Odorants, 716–717
Oil of wintergreen, 592
Oil spills, bioremediation, 271
Oils, 29–30
Okazaki, Reiji, 184
Okazaki fragments, 184
Old World monkeys, 515
Oleander, 598
Olfaction, 716–717
Olfactory bulb, 716, 728
Olfactory epithelium, 716
Olfactory receptor cells, 716–717
Oligochaetes, 485
Oligodendrocytes, 702
Oligonucleotides, 38
Oligopeptides, 44
Oligosaccharides, 27, 212
Omega-3 fatty acids, 627
Omega-6 fatty acids, 627
Ommatidia, 722
Omnivores, 889, 890
On the Origin of Species (Darwin), 10, 300–301, 345
Oncogenes, 148
Oncorhynchus nerka, 783
“One gene–one enzyme” hypothesis, 195–196
One gene–one polypeptide hypothesis, 196
Onychophorans, 476, 491
Oocytes, 772–773
Oogenesis, 771, 772–773
Oomycetes, 408–409
Open circulatory systems, 664, 665
Open ocean, net primary productivity, 919
Open ocean biome, 856, 857
“Open range,” 845
Open reading frames, 237, 240
Open systems, 876
Operators, 218
Opercular cavities, 651
Opercular flaps, 651
Operculum, 504
Operons, 217–220
Operophtera brumata, 930, 931
Ophiothrix spiculata, 499
Ophrys, 351
Opisthokonts, 451
Opossums, 513
“Opportunistic evolution,” 544–545
Opsins, 336–337, 719
Oral cavity, 654, 655
Oral hormones, 781
Oral surface, 498
Orangutans, 515
Orchids
bilateral symmetry, 440
mechanical isolation, 351
pollinators, 420, 447–448
Ordovician period, 360–361, 372
Organ identity genes, 284, 285
Organ of Corti, 717–718
Organ systems, 6
Organelles
chromosomes and genes in, 166–167
in the evolution of eukaryotic cells, 4
functions of, 63
glyoxysomes, 72
mitochondria, 71–72
motor proteins and the movement of, 75, 76
peroxisomes, 72
plastids, 72
vacuoles, 72–73
Organic fertilizers, 541
Organisms, 2
Organization. See Biological organization
Organizer, 799, 800
Organogenesis
defined, 797
neural tube induction in chordates, 797–800, 801
Organs
defined, 6, 616
levels of organization in animals, 616–617
need for energy and oxygen transport systems, 617
ori region, 132
Oriental biogeographic region, 858, 859
Orientation
animal mechanisms, 835–837
defined, 834
honey bee waggle dance, 837
Origin of life, 2, 34, 35
Origins of replication, 180, 181
Ornithorhynchus anatinus, 513
Orthocarpus densiflorus, 878
Orthologs, 245
Orthoptera, 495
Orycteropus afer, 340
Oryctolagus cuniculus, 768
Oryza sativa. See Rice
Osmosis
description of, 88–89
fluid loss in capillaries and, 675–676
water–salt balance and, 751
Osmotic conformers (osmoconformers), 758
Osmotic pressure
of body fluids, 752
defined, 88
hyperosmotic regulators, 756, 757–758
isosmotic animals, 756
kidney function and, 753
of primary urine, 761
terrestrial animals, 759
of tubular fluid, 762, 763
Osmotic regulators (osmoregulators), 758
Osprey, 629, 630
Ossicles, 717, 718
Ostfeld, Rick, 864, 880
Ostia, 671
Ostrich, 510, 511
Ottoia, 369
Ouachita Mountains, 348
Our Knowledge of the External World (Russell), 722
Outer ear, 718
Outgroup, 329
Ova
defined, 769
menstrual cycle, 778–779
oogenesis, 771, 772–773
ovulation in mammals, 777–779
See also Eggs
Oval window, 717, 718
Ovarian follicles
development, 772–773
menstrual cycle, 778–779
sex steroids and the regulation of mammalian reproduction, 776–777, 778–779
Ovaries
in angiosperms, 439, 440
major hormones and their actions, 744
ovulation, 768, 777–779, 784
as primary reproductive organs, 770
sex steroids and sexual development, 746, 747
sex steroids and the regulation of mammalian reproduction, 776–777, 778–779
Overtopping growth, 431
Oviducts, 777
Ovipositor, 494
Ovulation
defined, 773
induced, 768, 777–778, 784
spontaneous, 778–779, 784
Ovules
in angiosperms, 443
in conifers, 437, 438
in seed plants, 434
Owls, 512
Oxaloacetate, 111, 117
Oxidation, 107–108β-Oxidation, 116
Oxidative phosphorylation, 108, 111, 112, 113
Oxidative system of ATP supply, 691, 692
Oxidized state, 44
Oxygen
aerobic cellular respiration and, 109, 111, 113
breathing organs and, 665
covalent bonding capacity, 22
cyanobacteria and oxygen cycling, 396
electronegativity, 23
in the evolution of life, 3–4
inhibition of nitrogenase, 544
isotopes, 19
production by photosynthesis, 123
as a respiratory gas, 644 (see also Respiratory gases)
systemic tissues and, 665
Oxygen consumption
in insect flight muscles, 681
limits of work at high elevation and, 659–660
measuring of metabolic rate, 607–608
measuring the energy costs of exercise, 605, 622
Oxygen equilibrium curve, 678–679
Oxygen partial pressure
control of mammalian breathing and, 659
defined, 645
diffusion in cocurrent and countercurrent gas exchange systems and, 649–650
oxygen diffusion and, 645, 647–648
Oxygen transport
animal need for, 617
circulatory systems and, 662
by hemoglobin in blood, 677–678
systemic and breathing-organ circuits, 665–667
Oxygenation, 677–678
Oxytocin, 620, 737, 741, 744, 780
Oysters, 487
I-29
Ozark Mountains, 348
Ozone layer, 4, 191
P
P450 enzymes, 618
p21 Protein, 282
p53 Protein, 188
P rats, 215
Pace, Norman, 241, 383
Pacemaker cells
crustacean heart, 671
mammalian heartbeat, 668–669, 670, 671
Pacific salmon, 783
Packrat middens, 902, 903
Paclitaxel, 148
Pair rule genes, 286, 287
Pairing behavior, 843
Palaeognaths, 511
Palearctic biogeographic region, 858, 859, 861
Paleomagnetic dating, 359
Paleontology
construction of phylogenies and, 331
dating of fossils and rocks, 357, 358–359
the geological time scale, 359–361
history of Precambrian life, 367–368
overview of the fossil record of life, 367–374
reasons for the paucity of the fossil record, 367
See also Fossil record
Paleozoic era, 360–361, 372–373
Palisade mesophyll, 531
Palmitic acid, 30
Palms, secondary growth, 534
Pan. See Chimpanzees
Pancreas
in digestion, 636, 637–638
endocrine control of, 639
insulin and glucagon regulation of blood nutrient levels, 640–641
major hormones and their actions, 744
Pandemics, 298
Pandey, Subhash, 215
Pandion haliateus, 629, 630
Pandoraviruses, 399
Pangaea, 372, 373, 859
Pangolins, 514
Pantothenic acid, 628
Papanicolau (Pap) test, 129
Paper, 521, 535
Paper wasps, 497
Paphiopedilum, 440
Papilio machaon, 497
Papyrus, 521
Parabasalids, 410, 411
Parabronchi, 653
Paracrine signals, 95, 96
Paracrines, 736
Paragordius tricuspidatus, 490
Paramecium, 407, 414, 415, 886–887
Paramecium aurelia, 888
Paramecium bursaria, 888
Paramecium caudatum, 888
Paranthropus aethiopicus, 516
Paranthropus boisei, 515, 516
Paranthropus robustus, 515, 516
Paraphyletic groups, 339
Parapodia, 484
Parasitic flatworms, 481–482
Parasitic fungi, 453–454
Parasitic nematodes, 489, 518
Parasitic wasps, 595–596
Parasitism, effects on fitness, 883, 884
“Parasol effect,” 363
Parasympathetic nervous system, 725, 726
Parathyroid hormone, 689, 744
Parenchyma, 525, 526, 529
Parent rock, 540
Parental generation
defined, 151
dihybrid crosses, 154, 155
monohybrid crosses, 152, 153
Parietal lobe, 728
Parsimony principle, 329, 331
Parthenocarpy, 562
Partial pressures
and gas diffusion in cocurrent and countercurrent gas exchange systems, 649–650
of respiratory gases, 645
See also Oxygen partial pressure
Particulate inheritance, 151–158
Parus major, 930, 931
Pascal (Pa), 645
Passeriform birds, 512
Passerina cyanea, 831
Passiflora, 894, 895
Passionflower, 894, 895
Passive transport, 87–91
Pasteur, Louis, 105
Patents, 253
Path integration, 834–835
Pathogen associated molecular patterns (PAMPs), 591, 813
Pathogenesis-related (PR) genes, 591
Pathogenesis-related (PR) proteins, 591, 592
Pathogenic bacteria
biofilms, 390, 391
characteristics of, 393–394
toxins, 394
Pathogenic fungi, 454, 455
Pathogens
animal defense systems and, 810 (see also Animal defense systems)
defined, 810
Pattern formation
body segmentation in the fruit fly, 285–288
defined, 283
programmed cell death, 284
spatial differences in gene expression and, 283
Pattern recognition receptors (PRRs), 813
Pauling, Linus, 337
Pax6, 806
Pax6 gene, 273, 294
Pears, 444
Peas, Mendelian inheritance, 151–156
Peat, 453
Pectoral fins, 503, 504
Pedigrees, of humans, 157–158
Pelagic zone, 857
Pellicle, 407
Pelophylax, 11
Penetrance, 162
Penicillin
discovery of, 450
effect on bacterial cell walls, 194, 380–381
Penicillin-binding proteins, 194
Penicillin resistance, 169, 194, 467
Penicillium, 450, 464
Penicillium camembertii, 464
Penicillium notatum, 467
Penicillium roqueforti, 464, 465
Penile erection, 664, 780
Penis
development, 746
erection, 664, 780
hydrostatic skeleton, 690–691
sperm transfer and, 774
Pentaradial symmetry, 498
Pentoses, 27, 38
Penumatophores, 599
Pepsinogens, 637
Pepsins, 637, 639
Peptidases, 635
Peptide and protein hormones
receptor proteins, 737
secretion, 739
structure and function, 638, 737
Peptide bonds, 44, 45, 46
Peptides
defined, 44
as neurotransmitters, 711
Peptidoglycan, 64, 380–381
Peptidyl transferase, 210
Per capita birth rate, 866–867, 874
Per capita death rate, 866–867, 874
Per capita growth rates
defined, 867
effect of interspecific interactions on, 886
effect of population density on, 874, 875
species’ distributions and, 870–872
Per gene, 829
Perching birds, 512
Pereiopods, 494
Perennials, 579, 597–598
Perfect flowers, 439, 574
Perforin, 823
Perfusion
in cocurrent and countercurrent gas exchange systems, 649–650
defined, 649, 665
Pericles, 809
Pericycle, 528–529
Periderm, 525, 534
Periods, 359–361
Peripheral activation, of hormones, 740
Peripheral chemoreceptors, 659
Peripheral membrane proteins, 85
Peripheral nervous system (PNS), 724, 726–727
Periplasmic space, 381
Perissodactyla, 514
Peristalsis, 635, 696
Peritoneal cavity, 800
Peritoneum, 473, 474, 800, 801
Peritonitis, 800
Permian period
atmospheric oxygen levels, 365, 374
flying insects, 357, 374
history of life during, 370, 372–373
key events during, 360–361
mass extinctions, 363, 374
volcanoes, 363
Peromyscus gossypinus, 841
Peromyscus leucopus, 830, 841, 864
Peroxisomes, 66, 67, 72
Personal genomics, 249
Petals, 439, 574
Petiole, 531
Petromyzon marinus, 503
Pfiesteria piscicida, 406
pH
blood pH in negative-feedback control of breathing, 656, 657, 659
impact on enzymes, 56, 57
impact on protein structure, 47
of the stomach lumen, 637
Phage therapy, 399
Phagocytes
activation in the humoral immune response, 822
defensins and, 812
functions of, 71, 811
in inflammation, 813, 814
in innate defenses, 810
types of, 811
Phagocytosis, 70–71, 93, 811, 813
Phagosomes, 71, 93
Phalanges, 292–293
Phanerozoic eon, 359, 360–361, 367, 368–372
Pharmacogenomics, 249
Pharming, 266–267
Pharyngeal slits, 500
Pharynx
chordates, 500
hemichordates, 500
mammalian breathing system, 654, 655
Phasmida, 495
Phenolics, 594
Phenotype
analyzing with proteomics and metabolomics, 238–239
artificial selection and, 303–304
defined, 153
determination by genes, 154
effects of mutation on, 187
interactions of genes and alleles in the production of, 158–162
recombinant, 163
Phenotypic plasticity
I-30
in animals, 618–619
digestive, 635
of skeletal muscle, 693–694
Phenylalanine, 43, 195
Phenylketonuria, 195
Pheromones, 736, 834–835
Philodina roseola, 482
Phloem
function, 428, 526
in leaves, 531
pressure flow of solutes, 551–553
in roots, 529
secondary, 533
in shoots, 530–531
Phlox, 353–354
Phlox cuspidata, 353–354
Phlox drummondii, 346–347, 353–354
Phoenix dactylifera, 446
Pholidota, 514
Phoronids, 476, 480–481, 483–484
Phoronis mulleri, 483
Phosphate group
in phospholipids, 30
protein phosphorylation, 212–213
structure and properties, 25
in the structure of nucleic acids, 38, 41
Phosphate ions, in ATP, 105, 106
Phosphatidylcholine, 31
Phosphoanhydride bonds, 107
Phosphodiester bonds
in DNA replication, 179
in the formation of RNA, 198
in nucleic acids, 38, 39
Phosphoglucose isomerase (PGI), 316–317
3-Phosphoglycerate, 110
Phosphoglycerate kinase, 110
Phospholipid bilayers
simple diffusion across, 87–88
structure, 30, 31
Phospholipids
in biological membranes, 83–85
defined, 30
hydrophilic and hydrophobic regions, 83–84
structure and properties, 30, 31
Phosphorus
in animal nutrition, 629
covalent bonding capacity, 22
cycle, 926
electronegativity, 23
in plant nutrition, 543
Phosphorylase kinase, 101
Phosphorylation
of histones, 227
of proteins, 212–213
Photic zone, 857
Photoautotrophs, 394, 395
Photoheterotrophs, 394–395
Photomorphogenesis, in plants, 567–570
Photons
absorption by chlorophyll, 121–122
and Earth’s radiation balance, 926
possible interactions with molecules, 119–120
See also Light
Photoperiod
flowering and, 580–582
seasonal reproduction in animals, 784
Photoreceptors
defined, 557
entrainment of circadian rhythms in plants, 570
in plant growth and development, 557, 567–570
in visual systems, 718–719, 720, 722
See also Pigments
Photosynthesis
carbon dioxide fixation, 119, 124–125
in chloroplasts, 72
in cyanobacteria, 385
defined, 3
and ecological systems, 903
in the evolution of life, 3
impact on atmospheric oxygen, 364–365
linkage to cellular respiration, 118
overview, 118–119
in photoautotrophs, 394, 395
photochemistry and photobiology of light, 119–121
photosystem organization and function, 121–123
Photosynthetic eukaryotes, 421, 422
Photosynthetic lamellae, 385
Photosystems, 121–123
photosystem I, 122, 123
photosystem II, 122, 123
Phototropin, 568
Phototropism, 561–562
Phthiaptera, 495
Phycoerythrin, 421
Phyla, 339
Phyllomedusa bicolor, 11
Phyllopteryx taeniolatus, 505
Phylogenetic trees
and biogeography, 859–861
comparative biology and, 327–328
construction of, 328–334
defined, 326
description of, 326–327
parsimony principle, 329, 331
testing, 332–334
Tree of Life, 5
Phylogeny/Phylogenetics
biogeography and, 859–861
biological classification and, 339
comparative and predictive uses, 334–338
defined, 325, 326
derived traits, 328
evolutionary history and phylogenetic trees, 326–327
ingroup and outgroup, 329
maximum likelihood method, 332
parsimony principle, 329, 331
reconstructing from traits, 328–334
reconstruction of evolutionary events and, 374
testing phylogenetic analyses, 332–334
Physical environment
atmospheric circulation patterns, 850–851
induction of epigenetic changes, 228–229
ocean circulation patterns, 851–852
topography, 852–853
variation in solar energy input, 849, 850
See also Climate
Physical geography
defined, 846
impact on biogeography, 854–857
Physical work, limits at high elevation, 659–660
Phytoalexins, 591, 592
Phytochrome
effect on gene transcription, 569–570
entrainment of circadian rhythms, 570
red light responses in plants, 568–569
Phytomers, 522
Phytoplankton, 415, 857
Phytoplankton “blooms,” 408
Phytoplasma, 588
Phytoremediation, 602
Picea glauca, 436
Picea mariana, 436
Pied flycatchers, 828
Pigeons
artificial selection and, 304
orientation by homing pigeons, 835–836
Pigmented epithelium, 721
Pigments
absorption and action spectra, 120
accessory pigments, 121
defined, 120
respiratory pigments, 677–678
See also Chlorophyll; Photoreceptors
“the Pill,” 781
Pilobolus, 462
Pilosa, 514
Pineal gland, 744
Pineapple, 444
Pines, 437–438
Pinnae, 718
Pinocytosis, 93–94
Piñon–juniper woodlands, 931
Pinus contorta, 437
Piranga olivacea, 512
Pistil, 439
Pit organs, 722–723
Pit vipers, 722–723
Pith, 529
Pituitary gland
hypothalamus–pituitary–adrenal cortex axis, 742–743
pituitary–hypothalamus connections and interactions, 740–743
See also Anterior pituitary gland; Posterior pituitary gland
Placenta
development, 796, 803
of eutherians and marsupials, 512
hormones secreted by, 777, 780
structure and function, 780
Placental mammals
blastocyst implantation, 793, 794
cleavage, 792–793
delayed implantation, 782–783
gastrulation, 795–796, 797
placenta, 803 (see also Placenta)
See also Eutherians
Placobdella parasitica, 484
Placozoans, 475, 476, 478
Planaria, 648
Plankton, 367
See also Phytoplankton
Plant biotechnology
agriculture and, 267–270
genetic transformation, 258, 259
pharming, 266–267
Plant body
alternative form and function of plant organs, 531–532
apical–basal and radial axes, 523–524
determinate and indeterminate growth, 526
impact of domestication on, 534–535
organization and construction, 522–526
primary growth and the primary body, 527–532
secondary growth, 527, 533–534
tissue systems, 524–526
Plant cell walls
acid growth hypothesis, 563
in constitutive defenses, 590
structure and function, 67, 77
turgor pressure and, 545–546
Plant cells
acid growth hypothesis, 563
apoptosis, 147
chloroplasts, 72
cytokinesis, 135–136, 137
structure of, 67
totipotency, 275–276
turgor pressure, 89
vacuoles, 72–73
Plant defenses
chemical defenses, 593–597
constitutive defenses, 590, 593–594
evolutionary “arms race”, 892
induced defenses, 590–593, 594–596
and soil nutrients, 854
successful herbivore responses and, 596–597
Plant embryos
I-31
angiosperms, 443
in the life cycle of land plants, 424
structure and development, 524, 577, 578
Plant growth and development
abscisic acid and, 566–567
brassinosteroids and, 566
cytokinins and, 566
double fertilization and embryogenesis, 577, 578
entrainment of circadian rhythms, 570
ethylene and, 565–566
hormones and photoreceptors in, 557
key factors and characteristics, 556
role of photoreceptors, 567–570
roles of gibberellins and auxin, 558–564
seed germination and seedling growth, 556–557
Plant hormones
abscisic acid, 566–567
brassinosteroids, 566
compared to animal hormones, 557
cytokinins, 566
ethylene, 565–566
gibberellins and auxin, 558–564
in plant defenses, 591
in plant growth and development, 557
semi-dwarf grains, 570–571
structures and functions, 559
“Plant kingdom,” 421
Plant life cycles (see also Life histories)
angiosperms, 442–443 (see also Angiosperm sexual reproduction)
conifers, 437–438
ferns, 430–431
land plants, 424–425
mosses, 426–428
seed plants, 432–435
Plant nutrition
carnivorous plants, 544, 545
essential elements, 538–539
ion exchange and nutrient uptake, 540–541
nutrient deficiencies, 538
“opportunistic evolution” and, 544–545
parasitic plants, 544, 545
soil and, 539–540
soil organisms and, 541–545
Plant signal transduction pathways
in the actions of auxin and gibberellins, 563–564
cytokinin pathway, 566, 567
genetic screens, 557–558
in plant induced defenses, 591, 595–596
Plantae, 421, 422
Plantago, 590
Plantago erecta, 878
Plantains, 590
Plant–pollinator interactions, 420, 441–442, 447–448
and coffee production, 914
as ecosystem service, 911
Plants
adaptations to environmental stresses, 597–602
alternative form and function of plant organs, 531–532
as primary producers, 889
asexual reproduction, 130
coevolution with animals, 411–442, 894, 895
endophytic fungi, 458
evolution of defensive chemicals, 894
floral organ development, 284, 285
genome characteristics, 244, 245
hybridization and lateral gene transfer, 319
meristems, 276–277
metabolomics, 239
mycorrhizae, 456–457
origin and evolution of, 421, 422
parasitic fungi, 453–454
pathogenic fungi, 454
phytoremediation, 602
polyploidy, 145–146
pressure flow of solutes in phloem, 551–553
primary endosymbiosis, 421
sac fungi diseases, 464
sexual reproduction (see Angiosperm sexual
reproduction; Plant life cycles)
speciation by polyploidy, 350–351
stomatal control of water loss and gas exchange, 550–551
stress response, 224, 225
variation in communities along environment gradients, 900, 901
water and solute transport in the xylem, 545–550
Planula, 478, 479
Plasma, 677
See also Blood plasma
Plasma cells, 817, 819
Plasmids
gene transfer between bacteria, 168
as transformation vectors, 259
Plasmodesmata, 67, 77, 526
Plasmodial slime molds, 412–413
Plasmodium, 406, 415–416
Plasmogamy, 436, 459, 460, 461, 462
Plass, Gilbert, 916
Plastids
genetic material and cytoplasmic inheritance, 166–167
structure and function, 72
Plate tectonics, 361, 362
Platelet-derived growth factor, 267
Platelets, 677, 814
Platte thistle, 892
Plecoptera, 495
Pleistocene epoch, 374
Pleistocene glaciation, 348
Plesiadapis fodinatus, 371
Pleural membranes, 655
Plumatella repens, 480
Pluripotency, 275, 800
Pluripotent stem cells, 279
induced, 279
Pneumocystis jirovecii, 454, 824–825
Pneumonia, 387
AIDS and, 824–825
Poecilanthrax willistoni, 497
Pogonophorans, 484, 485
Poikilotherms, 611–612, 613
Poinsettias, 573, 587–588
Point mutations
description of, 187–188
effects on polypeptide sequences, 205–206
in genome evolution, 312–313
single nucleotide polymorphisms, 248
“Point restriction” coat patterns, 160–162
Poiseuille, Jean, 663
Polar bodies, 771
Polar atmospheric circulation, 851
Polar covalent bonds, 22–23
Polar lobe, 791
Polar microtubules, 135
Polar nuclei, 575
Polar substances, impact on protein structure, 47
Polar transport, of auxin, 561–562
Polar tube, 460
Polarity
in development, 280
establishment in the animal zygote, 788–789
“Polarization compass,” 836–837
Pollen grains
in angiosperm sexual reproduction, 575–576
in the coevolution of plants and animals, 441
defined, 433
pollination and germination, 434, 442, 443, 576–577
structure and function, 433
Pollen tubes, 434, 576–577
Pollination
in the angiosperm life cycle, 442, 576–577
coffee plantations and, 914
defined, 434, 576
as ecosystem service, 911
mechanisms to prevent inbreeding, 576
Pollination strategies, 420, 441–442, 447–448
Pollinators
behavioral isolation in angiosperms and, 352, 353
mechanical isolation in angiosperms and, 351
plant pollination strategies and, 420, 441–442, 447–448
Pollinia, 447–448
Poll’s stellate barnacle, 887, 888
Poly A tail, 202
Polyacrylamide, 255
Polychaete worms, 805
Polydesmus, 493
Polymerase chain reaction (PCR)
in the creation of cDNA libraries, 262
in the creation of synthetic
DNA, 262
in DNA sequencing, 235, 236
overview, 185–186
sequencing of ancient DNA, 192
Polymerization, 26
Polymers, 26
Polymorphic genes, 158
Polynucleotides, 38
Polyp (cnidarian life stage), 478, 479
Polypeptides
defined, 44
formation in translation, 206–210 (see also Protein synthesis)
posttranslational modification, 211–213
Polyphyletic groups, 339
Polyploidy, 145–146, 350–351
Polyribosomes, 209–210
Polysaccharides, 27–28, 116
Polysomes, 209–210
Polyterpenes, 594
Polytrichum commune, 426
Polyubiquitin, 231–232
Ponderosa pine forests, 931
Ponds and lakes, 856, 857
Pools, of elements in biogeochemical cycles, 921
Poplar genome, 245
Population bottlenecks, 305
Population density
defined, 865
density dependent population growth, 873–874
dynamic changes, 865, 866
Population growth
carrying capacity and, 874–876
effects of births and deaths on, 866–867
effects of immigration and emigration on, 876–878
effects of intraspecific competition on, 885–886
history of human, 875
models of, 866–867, 876
multiplicative growth, 872–874
Population growth rates
interspecific interactions and, 883
life histories and, 867–872
Population size
defined, 865
effects of births and deaths on, 866–867
estimating, 865
I-32
Hardy–Weinberg equilibrium and, 308
Populations
abundance and, 865–866
bottlenecks and the founder effect, 305
carrying capacity and, 874–876
conservation and management, 878–880
defined, 846, 865
doubling time, 873
effects of immigration and emigration on, 876–878
effects of interspecific interactions on population dynamics, 886–887
evolution and, 302 (see also Evolution)
founder effect, 305
gene flow, 305
genetic drift, 305
genetic structure, 308
in the hierarchical structure of ecosystems, 7
Lyme disease and, 864
multiplicative growth, 872–874
Populus tremuloides, 130, 890, 891
Porcine/bovine somatotropin, 267
Posidonia, 446
Positional information, 283
Positive feedback
in action potentials, 707–708
in animal functions, 620
defined, 8
Positive selection, 311, 314–316
Positive-sense RNA, 397
Positive-sense single-stranded RNA viruses, 397–398
Positron emission tomography (PET), 729
Postabsorptive state, 639, 640–641
Postelsia palmaeformis, 409
Posterior, 473
Posterior pituitary gland, 740–741, 742, 744
Postganglionic neurons, 725, 726
Postpartum estrus, 768
Postsynaptic cells, 700, 709
Posttranscriptional gene regulation, 229–232
Postzygotic isolating mechanisms, 351, 353–354
Potassium-40, 358, 359
Potassium chloride, urine production in insects and, 764–766
Potassium ion channels
action potentials and, 707, 708
membrane potential and, 705–706
at neuromuscular junctions, 711
resting potential and, 704
Potassium ions
electronegativity, 23
equilibrium potential, 704
guard cell function in plants, 551
at neuromuscular junctions, 711
Potassium leak channels, 704, 705, 708
Potatoes, 531, 532, 585–586
Potential difference, 702
Potential energy, 31–32
Potrykus, Ingo, 269
PPARδ, 694
Prairie communities, 905–906
Pre-Bötzinger complexes, 656, 657
Pre-mRNA
introns and exons in, 200–201
processing of, 201–202
Precambrian, 359, 360–361, 367–368
Precipitation
climate diagrams, 853
effects of global warming on, 927, 929
influence on terrestrial biomes, 854
net primary productivity and, 918–919
Precursor RNA
introns and exons in, 200–201
processing of, 201–202
Predation, effects on fitness, 883, 884
Predator–prey interactions, rarity advantage and species coexistence, 888–889
Predatory fungi, 454–455, 456
Preganglionic neurons, 725, 726
Pregnancy, 779–780
Prepenetration apparatus (PPA), 542, 543
Pressure flow, in phloem, 551–553
Pressure potential, 545
Presynaptic axon terminal, 701
Presynaptic cells, 700, 709
Prevailing winds, 851
Prezygotic isolating mechanisms, 351–353, 354, 356
Priapella, 335, 336
Priapulids, 476, 490
Priapulus caudatus, 490
Primary active transport, 91, 92
Primary bronchi, 654, 655
Primary consumers
ecological efficiency and, 904
in trophic interactions, 889, 890
Primary embryonic induction, 799
Primary endosymbiosis, 404–405, 421
Primary growth, in plants, 527–532
Primary immune response, 816–817
Primary lysosomes, 70–71
Primary meristems, 527, 529, 530
Primary metabolites, 239
Primary motor cortex, 728, 730
Primary producers
in biogeochemical cycling, 921
ecological efficiency and, 904
net primary productivity and, 917
phytoplankton, 415
in trophic interactions, 889, 890
Primary protein structure, 44, 46, 48
Primary reproductive organs, 770
Primary somatosensory cortex, 728, 729, 730
Primary urine, 760–766
Primary visual cortex, 728
Primase, 180, 181
Primates
evolution, 514–517
hormonal control of pregnancy, 779–780
menstruation and the menstrual cycle, 778–779
number of living species, 514
Primers
in the creation of synthetic DNA, 262
in DNA replication, 180, 181, 184
in DNA sequencing, 235
in the polymerase chain reaction, 185, 186
Primitive groove, 796
Primitive streak, 795
Principle of allocation, 870
Probability, inheritance and, 156–157
Probes, in nucleic acid hybridization, 200
Proboscidea, 514
Proboscis
hemichordates, 499, 500
ribbon worms, 482, 483
Procambium
root stele, 528–529
shoots, 530
tissue system created by, 527
Processes, in biological systems, 7
Processive enzymes, 184, 198
Products, in chemical reactions, 31
Proenzymes, 638
Progesterone
actions of, 744
regulation of mammalian reproduction, 776–777, 779, 780
role in sexual development, 746
Programmed cell death, 146–148, 284
Prokaryotes
binary fission, 130, 132, 133
chemiosmosis in, 112
classification methods, 380–381
communities, 390–391
differences between Bacteria and Archaea, 380
differences with eukaryotes, 379
difficulties in studying, 380, 383
diversity, 383
domains of, 5
estimates of the numbers of species, 383
in the evolution of life, 3
evolutionary relationships revealed by nucleotide sequences, 381–382
genetic exchange in, 167–169
genomes, 240–243
key features of, 63–65
lateral gene transfer and discordant gene trees, 382–383
metabolic pathways, 394–395
microbiomes, 391–392
origin of replication, 180, 181
roles in element cycling, 395–396
shared characteristics with eukaryotes, 379
transcriptional gene regulation, 216–220
See also Archaea; Bacteria
Prolactin, 739, 741, 758, 780
Proline, 43, 44
Prometaphase
meiosis I, 142
mitosis, 135, 136
Promoters
of eukaryotic genes, 199–200
in the eukaryotic genome, 246
in expression vectors, 265
in gene regulation, 216, 222–223
histone modifications and, 227
sigma factors and RNA polymerase, 220
in transcription, 198
transcription factors and, 222–223
in viral reproduction, 221
Pronghorns, 832, 901
Proofreading, by DNA polymerases, 185
Prop roots, 531, 532
Prophase
meiosis I, 141, 142, 143–144
meiosis II, 142
mitosis, 134–135, 136, 141
Prosimians, 514, 515
Prosopis, 845, 889
Prosopis tamarugo, 598
Prostaglandins, 37, 57, 58, 813, 814
Prostate gland, 780
Prosthetic groups, as enzyme cofactors, 52
Protease inhibitors, 212
Proteases, 212, 635
Proteasomes, 231–232
Protein-coding genes, types of mutations, 187
Protein kinase A (PKA)
CREB-gene regulation and alcoholism, 215
in epinephrine-activated glycogen breakdown, 100, 101
Protein kinase receptors, 97, 98
Protein kinases
protein phosphorylation, 212–213
receptors, 97, 98
regulation by protein phosphatases, 102
I-33
Protein phosphatases, 102
Protein synthesis
genetic code, 203–206
overview, 197
posttranslational modification, 212–213
signal sequences, 211–212
transcription, 197–202
translation, 206–210
Proteins
amino acid building blocks, 42–44
biotechnology and the production of, 265–267
catabolic interconversions, 116–117
denaturation, 45–46
digestion, 633–634, 635, 637, 638
enzyme characteristics and functions, 49–53
excretion of nitrogenous wastes, 755–756
factors that can change protein structure, 47–49
as food molecules, 626
gene evolution and, 321
genes and, 194, 195–197 (see also Gene expression)
genetic information and, 9
higher-level structures, 44–47, 48
macromolecular structure, 26
major functions, 42
membrane proteins, 83, 85–86
modification in the rough endoplasmic reticulum, 70
primary structure, 44, 46
protein breakdown and proteasomes, 231–232
proteome and proteomics, 238–239
reconstruction of ancestral states, 325, 336–337, 341
signal sequences, 211–212
Proteobacteria, 387, 388, 394
Proteoglycans, 77, 78, 86
Proteolysis, 212, 213
Proteomes, 238–239, 249–250
Proteomics, 238–239, 249–250
Proterozoic eon, 359, 360–361, 367
Prothoracic glands, 748
Prothoracicotropic hormone (PTTH), 748
Protists
alveolates, 406–407
amoebozoans, 412–414
classification, 406
defined, 402
excavates, 410–412
overview, 405
pathogenic microbial eukaryotes, 415–416
primary producers, 415
remains of ancient marine protists, 417–418
reproduction, 414–415
rhizarians, 409–410
stramenopiles, 408–409
Protocells, 80
Protoderm
root epidermis, 528
shoots, 530
tissue system created by, 527
Protoebacterium, 404
Protohominids, 515–516
Proton concentration gradients
in chemiosmosis, 111–113, 114
in oxidative phosphorylation, 111, 112
in plant uptake of ions, 547
Proton pumps
ion exchange and plant nutrient uptake, 540–541
plant uptake of ions, 547
Protons, in atomic structure, 19
Protopeterus annectens, 505
Protostomes
cleavage, 791
defined, 472
ecdysozoans, 487–490 (see also Arthropods)
gastrulation and coloem development, 796, 797
general features, body plans, and major clades, 480
larval stage, 804–805
lophotrochozoans, 480–487
summary of living members of major groups, 476
Prototherians, 512, 513
Protula, 484
Proturans, 494
Provirus, 225, 398
Proximal convoluted tubule, 761–762, 765
Proximate explanations, 11
Pseudobiceros, 648
Pseudocoel, 473, 474, 480
Pseudocoelomates, 473, 474
Pseudocolochirus, 499
Pseudogenes, 246, 313, 318
Pseudomonas, 253, 395
Pseudonocardia, 882
Pseudopallene, 492
Pseudoplasmodium, 414
Pseudopodia, 73
Pseudopods
amoebozoans, 412
foraminiferans, 409–410
radiolarians, 410
Psocoptera, 495
Pterobranchs, 499–500
Pterosaur, 292
Pteygotes, 495–496, 497
Puberty, 746–747, 781, 869, 870
Puccinia graminis, 454
Puccinia graminis strain Ug99, 589, 602, 603
Puffballs, 453
Pulmonary artery, 668
Pulmonary valve, 668
Pulmonary veins, 668
Pulse oximeters, 678
Pulsed secretion, of hormones, 743
Punnett, Reginald, 153
Punnett square, 153
Pupil, 719, 720
Purifying selection, 311, 314–316
Purines
base pairing, 38–40, 41
in DNA, 176, 177
structure, 38
Purple loosestrife, 891
Purple owl’s clover, 878
Purple witchweed, 545
Pus, 814
Pycnogonids, 491
Pycnophyes, 490
Pyloric sphincter, 637
Pyrenestes ostrinus, 312
Pyrenian ibex, 276
Pyridoxine, 628
Pyrimidines
base pairing, 38–40, 41
in DNA, 176, 177
structure, 38
Pyrophosphate, 107
Pyruvate
in fermentation pathways, 115, 116
oxidation, 109, 110–111
Pyruvate dehydrogenase, 110
Q
Q10, 611, 612
Quack grass, 440
Quadriceps femoris, 689, 690
Qualitative traits, 310
Quantitative traits
actions of natural selection on, 310–312
conferred by multiple genes, 160
defined, 310
human height, 162
Quaternary period
climate changes during, 361, 362
history of life during, 360–361, 374
Quaternary protein structure, 46–47
Queen Anne’s lace, 440
Quercus robur, 930
Quillworts, 429
Quorum sensing, 378, 391
R
R factors, 168
R groups, 43–44, 51
R (restriction) point, 138, 140, 148
Rabbits, 514
coat color, 158–159
induced ovulation, 768, 777–778
“point restriction” coat patterns, 160–162
reproductive characteristics, 768
Radial axis, in plants, 523–524
Radial cleavage, 790, 791
Radial symmetry, 473
Radiation
as a mutagen, 190, 191
solar, 849, 926–927
Radicle, 556, 557
Radioisotopes, 357, 358–359
Radiolarians, 410, 416
Radiometric dating, 357, 358–359
Radius, 292–293
Rafflesia arnoldii, 447
Rain shadows, 852–853
Rainbow trout, 57
Ramalina menziesii, 467
Rana pipiens. See Leopard frogs
Random mating, 308, 309
Rape (Brassica napus), 566
Raphidoptera, 495
Rarity advantage, 888–889
Rats
effects of maternal care on rat pups, 831–832
P rats and alcoholism, 215
Rattlesnakes, 722–723
Ray-finned fishes
body plan, 502
diversity, 505
evolution, 504
Rays, 504
Reactants, in chemical reactions, 31
Reaction center, 121, 122, 123
Receptive fields, 720
Receptor endocytosis, 94–95
Receptors/Receptor proteins
action of hormones on target cells and, 739
binding of ligands to, 97
in the endocrine system, 737–738
in endocytosis, 93
inhibitors, 97
in signal transduction pathways, 96–98
Recessive traits
defined, 152
heterozygous carriers, 158
monohybrid crosses, 152–153
test crosses, 154, 155
Reciprocal adaptations, 896–897
Recognition sequences, of eukaryotic promoters, 223
Recombinant chromatids, 144
Recombinant DNA technology
applications, 265–270
artificial gene constructs, 262
DNA ligase and the joining of DNA fragments, 257
gel electrophoresis, 255–256
genomic libraries and cDNA libraries, 261–262
patents and, 253
public concerns about, 270
reporter genes, 260–261
restriction enzymes, 254–255, 256
synthetic DNA, 262
Recombinant phenotype, 163
Recombination, genetic, 162–164
Recombination frequency, 164
Rectum, 638
Red algae, 421, 422, 423
Red blood cells
beta thalassemia, 202
osmosis, 89
Plasmodium and malaria, 415–416
respiratory gas transport, 677–678
sickle-cell disease, 188
Red-breasted nuthatch, 901
Red bryony vine, 532
I-34
Red campion, 574
Red fluorescent proteins, 325, 341
Red foxes, 784
Red light, phytochrome-mediated responses in plants, 568–569
Red swimming muscles
countercurrent heat exchange, 675, 678–679
of tuna, 661, 675, 678–679
Red tides, 401, 416
Red–green color blindness, 166
Redox reactions, 107–108
Reduced state, 44
Reduction, 107–108
Reforestation, mycorrhizal fungi and, 466
Regulation
defined, 610
energy costs, 610
hibernation and, 614–615
Regulative development, 791–792
Regulators, 609–610
Regulatory genes, 219
Regulatory T cells, 824, 825
Reindeer moss, 456
Reinforcement, of isolating mechanisms, 351–355
Reissner’s membrane, 718
Releasing hormones (RHs), 742, 743, 744
Religion, 14–15
Renal artery and vein, 668
Renal organs. See Kidneys
Repetitive DNA sequences, 246–247
“Replication complex,” 132
Replication forks, 180, 181, 182–183
Reporter genes, 260–261
Repressible operons, 218, 219–220
Repressors
in negative gene regulation, 216
roles in different operons, 218, 219
silencers and, 223
Reproduction. See Angiosperm sexual reproduction; Asexual reproduction; Sexual reproduction; Vegetative reproduction
Reproductive isolation
defined, 344
genetic divergence and, 346–347
incomplete, 351
mechanisms of reinforcement, 351–355
produced by incompatibility between genes, 346, 347
species and, 344–345
Reproductive organs, primary and accessory, 770
Reproductive signals, 132, 133
Reptiles
breathing system, 652
circulatory system, 666–667
crocodilians and birds, 510–511 (see also Birds)
excretion of nitrogenous wastes, 756
lepidosaurs, 508–510
Requiem sharks, 773–774
Residual volume, 656
Resistance exercise, 694
Resistance (R) genes, 213, 592, 602, 603
Resource partitioning, 888, 892, 894
Resources
allocation of, 870
carrying capacity and, 874–875
life histories and, 869–870
limiting resource, 884
Respiratory airways, 654, 655
Respiratory chain, 111, 112
Respiratory gas exchange
alternating diffusion and bulk flow, 646
in animals without breathing organs, 648–649
in bird lungs, 652–653
breathing and ventilation, 646–647
countercurrent gas exchange in gills, 650–651
diffusion and partial pressures, 644–646
diffusion through air and water, 647–648
at high elevations, 643
in insect tracheal breathing systems, 653–654
mammalian breathing system, 654–659
path length and the challenges of, 644
in tidally ventilated lungs, 651–652
Respiratory gases
in cocurrent and countercurrent gas exchange systems, 649–650
defined, 644
diffusion and partial pressures, 644–646
diffusion through air and water, 647–648
negative-feedback control of breathing by blood carbon dioxide levels, 658–659
transport in blood, 677–678
Respiratory minute volume, 656
Respiratory pigments, 677–678
Resting potential, 703, 704
Restoration ecology, 862, 891–892, 912, 913
“Restriction digest,” 254
Restriction enzymes, 254–255, 256
Reteporella couchii, 480
Retina, 719–721
Retinal, 52, 39011-cis-Retinal, 719
Retinal ganglion cells, 720–721, 721–722
Retinoblastoma (RB), 148
Retinoblastoma protein (RB), 140
Retinol, 682
Retinula cells, 722
Retrotransposons, 246, 247
Retroviruses, 397, 398
See also Human immunodeficiency virus
Reverse transcriptase, 225, 262, 398
Reversible inhibition, 54, 55
Rhacophorus nigropalmatus, 11
Rhagoletis pomonella, 350, 352
Rheas, 511
Rheumatoid arthritis, 814
Rhincodon typus, 630
Rhinocyllus conicus, 892
Rhizarians, 409–410
Rhizobia, 542, 543–544 (see also Nitrogen fixation)
Rhizobium, 387
Rhizoids, 429, 451
Rhizomes, 429, 585, 596
Rhizopus, 462
Rhizopus stolonifer, 461
Rhodopsins, 718–719, 720, 722
Rhogeessa, 346, 347
Rht gene, 571
Rhyniophytes, 429
Rhythmogenic centers, 656, 657
Rhyzopertha dominica, 872, 904
Ribbon worms, 476, 482, 483
Ribbontail stingray, 504
Riboflavin, 628
Ribonucleic acid (RNA)
complementary base pairing, 38–39
in the creation of cDNA libraries, 262
expression of genetic information and, 40, 41, 42
formation in transcription, 197–202
nucleotide structure, 38
primer in DNA replication, 180, 181
in protocells, 80
roles in protein synthesis, 197
Ribonucleosides, 198
Ribose, 27, 38
Ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
in ribosomes, 68, 197, 207
in translation, 197
Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) genes, 246, 247, 381–382
Ribosomes
action of antibiotics and, 213
eukaryotic cells, 66, 67, 68
polysomes, 209–210
prokaryotic cells, 64
in translation, 197, 207–209, 210
Ribozyme, 210
Ribulose 1,5-bisphosphate (RuBP), 124, 125
Ribulose bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase (rubisco), 124, 125
Ribulose monophosphate (RuMP), 124, 125
Rice
genome characteristics, 244, 245
semi-dwarf varieties, 555, 570–571
transgenic, 269
Rice, William, 356
Rice weevil, 872
Rickettsia prowazekii, 317
Rift valleys, 361
Riftia, 484
Right atrium, 668
Right-handed double helix, 177
Right ventricle, 667–668
Rigor mortis, 685
Ringneck snake, 509
Rivers and streams, 856, 857
RNA. See Ribonucleic acid
RNA-dependent RNA polymerase, 396
RNA interference (RNAi), 263–264, 593
RNA polymerase II, 222
RNA polymerases
binding to promoters, 222
inducible operons, 218
RNA-dependent, 396
shared structure and actions, 198
sigma factors, 220
in transcription, 198, 199
in viral reproduction, 221
RNA primers, in DNA replication, 180, 181
RNA retroviruses, 397, 398
RNA splicing, 201–202, 821
RNA viruses
negative-sense single stranded, 396–397
plant systemic acquired resistance, 592–593
“Robusta” coffee, 898
Rock barnacle, 887, 888
Rock pigeon, 304
Rocks
dating of, 357, 358–359
parent rock, 540
sedimentary, 418
Rod cells, 720, 721
Rodentia, 514
Rodents
key features, 512–513
number of living species, 514
See also Mice; Rats
Root apical meristem, 524, 527, 528
Root cap, 527, 528
Root hairs, 525
Root nodules, 542, 544
Root system, structure and function, 522, 529, 530
Roots
adaptations to drought stress, 599, 600
adaptations to dry environments, 598
adaptations to saturated soils, 599
arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi, 542–543
Casparian strip, 547–548
evolution of, 431
function, 522
gravitropism, 562
I-35
ion exchange and nutrient uptake, 540–541
modifications, 531, 532
primary growth, 527, 528–529
root initiation and auxin, 562
structure and function, 529, 530
symbiotic nitrogen fixation, 542, 543–544
totipotency of root cells, 275
water and solute transport in xylem, 546–548
Roquefort cheese, 464
Rose chafer, 497
Rosenblum, Erica, 454, 455
Rotational cleavage, 793
Rotifers, 476, 482
Rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER)
eukaryotic cells, 66, 67
structure and function, 69, 70
targeting of proteins to, 212
Round window, 718
Roundworms, 488–489
RT-PCR, 262
Ruf, Thomas, 625
Rumen, 392, 631–632
Ruminants, 631–632, 641
Runners, 531, 532, 585
Russell, Bertrand, 722
Rust fungi, 465
Ryanodine receptor, 687
Rye, 529
S
S checkpoint, 139
S locus, 576
S phase
centrosome duplication during, 135
in the eukaryotic cell cycle, 133, 134, 136
G1–S transition, 138, 140
S checkpoint, 139
Sac fungi
characteristics of, 459, 462
filamentous, 464, 465
sac fungus yeasts, 462, 464
sexual reproduction, 462463
Sac fungus yeasts, 462, 464
Saccharomyces, 258
Saccharomyces cerevisiae, 244, 451, 462
Saccoglossus kowalevskii, 500
Safranin, 381
Sake, 464
Salamanders
key features, 506–507
polarity in early development, 789
Salamandra salamandra, 507
Salamone, Daniel, 267
Salicylic acid, 37, 591, 592
Saline environments
and aquatic biomes, 856
plant adaptations, 600–601
Saliva, 636
Salix, 37
“Sally Lightfoot” crab, 493
Salmon
hyperosmotic and hyposmotic regulation in, 758
semelparity, 783
water–salt balance, 751, 766
Salmonella, 394
Salmonella typhimurium, 387
Salps, 500
Salt, George, 356
Salt glands (of animals), 754–755
Salt glands (of leaves), 601
Salt marshes, 856
Salt tolerance, biotechnology and, 269–270
Saltatory conduction, 709
Salts
diffusion and water–salt balance, 751 (see also Water–salt balance)
extrarenal excretion, 754–755
ionic attractions, 24–25
reabsorption in the hindgut, 638–639
Saltwater biomes, 14, 15
Salty soils, plant adaptations, 600–601
Sandhill cranes, 512
Sanger, Frederick, 235
Sapindopsis belviderensis, 371
Saplingoeca rosetta, 472
Saprobes, 408, 451
Saprobic fungi, 453
Saprolegnia, 408, 409
Sarcomeres, 683, 684
Sarcoplasm, 686–687
Sarcoplasmic reticulum, 686–687
Sargassum, 408
Saturated fatty acids, 29–30
Saturated soils, plant adaptations, 599
Savannas, 855
Scales, 504
Scaling relationships, 609
Scallops, 487, 696
Scarlet Banksia, 447
Sceloporus serrifer, 871, 872
Schistosomiasis, 482
Schizosaccharomyces pombe, 244
Schluter, Dolph, 893
Schmidt, Robert, 704
Schomburgk, Robert, 420
Schooling behavior, 827, 839, 843
Schopf, William, 80
Schwann cells, 702
Science and scientific methods, 12–15
Scientific names
binomial nomenclature, 4–5, 338–339
codes governing the use of, 339–341
Scion, 587
Sclera, 721
Sclereids, 525–526
Sclerenchyma, 525
Scleroporus, 930–931
Scolopendra hardwicki, 493
Scorpionflies, 495
Scorpions, 475, 492
“Scouring rushes,” 430
Screech owls, 830, 831
Scrotum, 780
Scyphozoans, 479, 480
Sd-1 gene, 571
Sea anemones, 478–480, 884–885
Sea cucumbers, 499
Sea hares, 713
Sea lettuce, 423
Sea levels, changes through Earth’s history, 361, 362
Sea lilies, 499
Sea spiders, 491
Sea squirts, 500–501
Sea stars, 498, 499, 805
Sea turtles, 510, 754–755
Sea urchins
characteristics of, 499
cytoplasmic segregation in the egg, 280
fertilization in, 774
gametic isolation, 353
gastrulation, 794, 795
polarity in the embryo, 280
regulative development, 791–792
Seabirds, 754–755
Seagrasses, 446, 856
Seasonal reproductive cycles, 784
Seasonality, 849, 850
Secale cereale, 529
Second filial generation (F2)
defined, 151
dihybrid crosses, 155–156
Mendel’s monohybrid crosses, 152–153
Second messengers, 99, 100, 712
Secondary active transport, 91, 92
Secondary bronchi, 655
Secondary consumers, 889, 890
Secondary endosymbiosis, 405
Secondary growth, 435, 527, 533–534
Secondary immune response, 817
Secondary lamellae, 650–651
Secondary lysosomes, 71
Secondary metabolites
identification of, 239
in plant chemical defenses, 593–594, 595
plant self-defenses against, 596
Secondary phloem, 533
Secondary protein structure, 44–45, 46
Secondary sexual characteristics, 770–771
Secondary xylem, 435, 533
Secretin, 639
Secretion, 93
Sedimentary rocks
dating, 358–359
defined, 358
formation, 418
strata, 358
Seed coat, 435
Seed plants
in the evolution of plants, 422
gymnosperms, 435–438
life cycle, 432–435
major groups, 424
pollination, 434
secondary growth and wood, 435
seed structure, 435
Seedless grapes, 560
Seedling, 556–557
Seeds
dispersal, 577–578
dormancy, 556, 567
embryo structure and development, 577, 578
fruits and dispersal, 443–444, 883
germination, 556–557, 560–561, 566–567
gymnosperms, 437–438
in mutualisms, 883
structure, 435
Segment polarity genes, 287
Segmentation
in animal body plans, 473–474, 475
in animal development, 800, 801
in annelids, 484
in fruit flies, 285–288
Segmentation genes, 286–287
Segregation, Mendel’s law of, 153–154
Selectable marker genes, 258, 260–261
Selective permeability, 87
Self, distinguishing from nonself, 816, 824
Self antigens, 824
Self-compatibility, 336, 337
Self-incompatibility, 336, 337, 576
Self-pollination, 576
“Selfish DNA,” 247
Semelparous animals, 783–784
Semen, 780
Semi-dwarf grains, 555, 570–571
Semibalanus balanoides, 887, 888
Semicircular canal, 718
Semiconservative replication, 179–186
Seminal vesicles, 780
Seminiferous tubules, 772
Senescence, delayed by cytokinins, 566
Sensation, neural basis of, 715
Sensors, in control systems, 619
Sensory neurons
function of, 724
spinal reflexes, 727
Sensory processes
auditory systems, 717–718, 719
functions of, 714
neural basis of sensation, 715
sensory receptor cells and sensory transduction, 714
smell and olfactory receptor cells, 716–717
stretch receptor cells, 716
visual systems, 719–723
Sensory receptor cells
defined, 714
sensory receptor proteins and, 715
sensory transduction and, 714
types of, 715
See also Chemoreceptors; Ionotropic receptor cells; Mechanoreceptors; Metabotropic receptor cells; Photoreceptors
Sensory receptor proteins, 715
Sensory transduction, 714
Sepals, 439, 574
I-36
Sepioteuthis lessoniana, 486
Sepsis, 814
Septa, 451, 452
Septate hyphae, 451, 452
Sequential hermaphrodites, 775, 776
Serengeti Plain, 855, 856
Serine, 43
Serpentine, 865
Sertoli cells, 772, 781
Setae, 484–485
Severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS), 397
Sex, 769
Sex changes, 775, 776
Sex chromosomes
in Drosophila, 164
sex determination in animals, 775
sex-linked inheritance, 164–165, 166
Sex determination, 774–775
Sex-linked inheritance, 164–165, 166, 169–170
Sex pilus, 168
Sex steroids
function in sexual development, 746–747
regulation of mammalian reproduction, 776–777, 778–779, 780, 781
Sexual development, 746–747
Sexual intercourse, 777
Sexual life cycles
diversity in, 131–132
meiosis and the generation of genetic diversity, 130–131
Sexual recombination, 318–319
Sexual reproduction
advantages and disadvantages, 769–770
in angiosperms (see Angiosperm sexual reproduction)
in animals, 769–776 (see also Animal reproduction)
defined, 769
diversity in sexual life cycles, 131–132
fungi, 458
generation of genetic diversity, 130–131
protists, 414–415
See also Life cycles; Plant life cycles
Sexual selection, 306, 307
Sexually transmitted diseases, 387
Sharks
internal fertilization, 773–774
key features, 503–504
sperm transfer in, 774
ventilation of gills, 651
Sheep, cloning of, 276, 277
Shelley, Mary, 60
Shellfish, red tides, 401
Shells, molluscan, 487
Shimomura, Osamu, 325
Shivering, 613–614
Shoot apical meristem, 527
in the embryo, 524
products of, 530
transition to flowering, 579–580
Shoot system, structure and function, 522
Shoots
early shoot development, 557
gravitropism, 562
primary growth, 530–531
Shore crabs, 805
Short-day plants, 580–582
Short tandem repeats (STRs), 247, 250
Shrews, 514
Shrimp, 493
Shull, George, 160
Sialia sialis, 883
Siamese cats, “point restriction” coat patterns, 160–162
Sickle-cell disease, 188, 196
Side chains
of amino acids, 43–44
in enzyme-catalyzed reactions, 51
Sieve plate, 526
Sieve tube cells, 552
Sieve tube elements, 526
Sigma factors, 220
Signal sequences, 211–212, 266
Signal transduction pathways
caffeine’s effect on the brain and, 102–103
in cell signaling, 95
chemical signals, 95–96
genetic switches in development and, 289
innate defenses and, 810, 811, 813
receptors, 96–98
regulation of, 101–102
roles of enzymes and signal amplification in, 100–101
second messengers, 99, 100
See also Cell signaling; Plant signal transduction pathways
Silencers, 223
Silene dioica, 574
Silent mutations, 187, 205
Silent substitutions, 313
See also Synonymous substitutions
Silica, 408
Silicon dioxide, 476
Silkworm moths, 782
Silurian period, 360–361, 372
Silver salts, 565
Silverfish, 494–495
Simple diffusion, 87–88, 92
Simple epithelium, 615, 616, 632–633
Simple fruits, 443–444
Simple sugars, 27
Sinervo, Barry, 871
Single covalent bonds, 21
Single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs), 248, 251
Single-stranded RNA viruses
negative sense, 396–397
positive-sense, 397–398
Sinks, 526, 551, 553
Sinoatrial node, 668–669, 670
Siphonaptera, 495
Siphonops annulatus, 507
Sirenians, 514
Sister chromatids
condensation in prophase, 134–135, 136
in meiosis, 140, 141, 142, 143
separation during mitosis, 135, 137
Sister clades, 327
Sister species, 327, 348
Sitophilus oryzae, 872, 904
Sitta canadensis, 901
Skates, 504
Skeletal muscles
antagonistic pairs, 689, 690, 727
attachment and pulling on endoskeletons, 688–689
attachment and pulling on exoskeletons, 689–690
contraction, 682–688 (see also Muscle contraction)
effects of training on, 693–694
nervous and endocrine control, 719, 733, 735
neuromuscular junctions, 710–711
power output and ATP supply, 691–692
slow oxidative and fast glycolytic cells, 692–693
spinal reflexes, 726–727
structure of muscle fibers, 682–684
Skeletal systems
cartilaginous fish, 504
endoskeletons, 688–689
hydrostatic skeletons, 473, 690–691
See also Exoskeletons
Skin
induced pluripotent stem cells, 279
in innate defenses, 812
Skin diseases, 384
Skull, growth in humans and chimpanzees, 516, 517
Sleeping sickness, 411
Sliding-filament theory
actin–myosin interactions and ATP, 684–685
excitation–contraction coupling, 685–688
overview, 682
Slime, 528
Slime molds
cellular, 413–414
plasmodial, 412–413
Sloths, 514
Slow oxidative cells (slow-twitch cells)
characteristics of, 692–693
effect of training on, 694
Slow synapses, 712
Slug (cellular slime molds), 414
Small interfering RNAs (siRNAs), 263, 593
Small intestines, 637
Small nuclear ribonucleoprotein particles (snRNPs), 202
Smell, 716–717
Smith, Hamilton, 60, 240
Smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER)
eukaryotic cells, 66, 67
structure and function, 69, 70
Smooth muscle, 695–696
Smut fungi, 465
Snails
gastrulation, 796
mosaic development, 791
Snakeflies, 495
Snakes
key features, 508, 510
loss of forelimbs, 292
perception of infrared wavelengths, 722–723
“Snowball Earth” hypothesis, 367–368
Social behavior, 827, 839–841
Societies, 839–841
Sociobiology (Wilson), 302
Sockeye salmon, 783
Sodium chloride
ionic attractions, 24–25
See also Salts
Sodium ion channels
action potentials and, 707–708
evolution of TTX-resistant channels, 321
graded changes in membrane potential, 706
in muscle contraction, 97
at neuromuscular junctions, 711
in photoreceptor cells, 719, 720
Sodium/Sodium ions
in animal nutrition, 629
electronegativity, 23
at neuromuscular junctions, 711
removal during urine formation, 762–763
in stimulus reception, 715
See also Water–salt balance
Sodium–potassium pump, 704
Sodium–potassium (Na+–K+) pump, 92
Soil conservation, 553–554
Soil microbes, plant nutrition and, 541–545
Soils
erosion, 537, 553
fertilizers, 541
horizons, 540
impact on vegetation, 856
leaching, 540
living and nonliving components, 539
mineral nutrients for plants, 539–540
nutrients and net primary productivity, 919
saline, 600–601
saturated, 599
sustainable agriculture and, 553–554
Solanum tuberosum, 532
Solar energy
I-37
atmospheric circulation patterns and, 850–851
greenhouse effect and, 926–927
seasonality and, 849, 850
See also Photons
Solstices, 849, 850
Solutes
osmotic pressure and osmosis, 88–89
simple diffusion, 87–88
Solvents, 23
Somatic cells, 131, 771–773
Somatic mutations, 186
Somatosensory cortex, 728, 729, 730
Somites, 800, 801
Song learning behavior, 831
Sonic hedgehog (Shh) protein
eye development and, 294
holoprosencephaly and, 787, 806
neural tube differentiation and, 800
vertebrate limb development and, 283
Sooty mangabeys, 334, 335
Soredia, 456, 457
Sori, 430–431
Soricomorpha, 514
Sounds, detection by auditory systems, 717–718, 719
Sources, 526, 551, 553
Southeast trade winds, 851
Southern beeches, 858–859
Soy sauce, 464
Soybean monoculture, 862
Soybeans, 244
Spawning, 773
Speciation
allopatric speciation, 348–349
controlled laboratory experiments in, 356
defined, 344
Lake Malawi cichlids, 343
reproductive isolation and, 346–347, 351–355 (see also Reproductive isolation)
sympatric speciation, 350–351
Species
cost–benefit analysis of species relationships, 842
defined, 344
importance of animal behavior in maintaining, 841
number of fossil species, 367
reproductive isolation and, 344–345
species concepts, 344–345
Species abundance. See Abundance
Species coexistence, 888–889, 892, 894
Species composition
determinants of, 899
turnover in, 900–903
variation along environmental gradients, 900, 901
Species concepts, 344–345
Species’ distributions
effect of interspecific interactions on, 887, 888
as a reflection of environmental effects on per capita growth rates, 870–872
Species diversity
community function and, 904–906
components of, 905
habitat restoration and, 912, 913
Species evenness, 905
Species interactions
evolution and, 892–896
impact of global climate change on, 929–930, 931
interaction webs, 889–892
See also Interspecific interactions
Species introductions, 891–892
Species names. See Binomial nomenclature
Species richness
defined, 905
habitat fragmentation and, 911–912
latitudinal gradients in, 906–907
net primary productivity and, 905–906
variation with size and location of oceanic islands, 907–908, 909
Specific immunity, in plants, 591–593
Spectacled caiman, 510
Spemann, Hans, 789, 799
Sperm (spermatozoa)
in angiosperm sexual reproduction, 442, 443, 575–577
in animal reproduction, 769, 773–774, 777, 788
gametic isolation, 353
in semen, 780
spermatogenesis, 771–772
storage in the female reproductive tract, 782
Spermatogenesis, 771–772, 781
Spermatophores, 774
Spermicides, 781
Spermophilus beldingi, 839
Sphenodon punctatus, 509
Sphincter muscles, 635, 637
Sphinx moth, 420, 681
Spicules, 475–476, 477
Spiders
characteristics of, 492
excretion of nitrogenous wastes, 756
web spinning behavior, 828
Spike mosses, 429
Spikelets, 440
Spikes, 440
Spina bifida, 798
Spinal cord
glial cells, 701
spinal reflexes, 726–727
in the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions, 725, 726
tracts, 701
Spinal reflexes, 726–727
Spindle, 135
Spines, of xerophytes, 598
Spinifex grasslands, 855, 856
Spiny anteater, 340
Spiny insectivores, 514
Spiny lizards, 871, 872
Spiracles, 494, 654
Spiral cleavage, 790–791
Spirillum (spirilla pl.), 381
Spirochetes, 386
Spliceosomes, 202
Splicing, 201–202
Sponge method, 781
Sponges
characteristics of, 475–477
choanocytes, 471
respiratory gas exchange in, 648–649
Spongy mesophyll, 531
Spontaneous abortion, 145
Spontaneous mutations, 189, 190
Spontaneous ovulation, 778–779, 784
Sporangia
ferns, 430–431
land plants, 424
plasmodial slime molds, 413
Sporangiophores, 460, 461
Spores
cyanobacteria, 385–386
fungi, 453, 458
homospory and heterospory in plants, 431–432
in the life cycle of land plants, 424
Sporocytes, 415
Sporophytes
in the life cycle of land plants, 424–452
in plant evolution, 433
of vascular plants, 428
Sporoplasm, 460
Sporopollenin, 433
Sporulation, 220
Spotted hyenas, 833, 834
Springtails, 494
Squamates, 508, 510
Squids
body plan and features of, 486, 487
giant axons, 709
nitrogen excretion, 755
spermatophores, 774
Sr24 gene, 602, 603
SRY gene, 746, 775
Stabilizing selection, 310–311
Stamens, 434, 439, 440, 574
Standard amino acids, 627
Stapes, 717, 718
Staphylococci, 241, 384
Staphylococcus, 384, 450
Staphylococcus aureus, 194, 384
Star anise, 445
Star navigation, 831
Star-nosed moles, 699, 730, 731
Starch
molecular and macromolecular structure, 28
produced in plants, 124
Starch branching enzyme 1 (SBE1), 154
Starling, E. H., 675–676
Start codon, 204
Statistical methods, 13–14
Stele, of roots, 528–529
Stem cells
in “knockout” experiments, 263
in mammals, 277–279
multipotent, 278–279
plant meristems, 276–277
pluripotent, 279
Stems
apical hook and ethylene, 565–566
elongation and gibberellins, 560
function, 522
modifications, 531, 532
secondary growth, 533–534
Steno, Nicolaus, 358
Stereocilia, 717, 718
Sterilization, 781
Sternum, of birds, 511
Steroid hormones
carrier proteins, 740
in plants, 566
receptor proteins, 738
secretion, 739
structure and function, 638, 737
See also Sex steroids
Sterols, 594
Steward, Frederick, 275
Stick insects, 495
Stigmas, 439, 440–441, 442
Stimulus-gated sodium channels, 715
Stingrays, 504
Stock, 587
Stolons, 585, 586
Stomach, 637
Stomata
and atmospheric CO2, 926
control of water loss and gas exchange, 525, 550–551
structural adaptations in xerophytes, 598
Stomatal crypt, 598
Stone, Edward, 37
Stone cells, 526
Stoneflies, 495
Stoneworts, 421, 422, 423
Stop codon, 204
Storms, global warming and, 927, 931
“Strain 121,” 388
Stramenopiles, 408–409
Strata, 358
Stratigraphy, 358
Strawberry plants, 531, 532
Strepsiptera, 495
Streptococcus pneumoniae, 64–65
Streptomyces, 385
Streptomycin, 385
Streptophytes, 421, 422
Stress, epigenetic gene expression and, 229
“Stress hormone,” in plants, 567
I-38
Stress response, in plants, 224, 225
Stretch-gated ion channels, 705, 706, 716
Stretch receptor cells, 716
Striated muscle, 684
Striga, 544–545
Strigolactones, 542, 544–545
Strobili, 429
Stroke volume, 667
Stroma, 72, 119, 124–125
Stromatolites, 4, 364–365
Strongylocentrotus purpuratus, 499
Structural genes, 219
Structure
of ecological communities, 899
of habitats, 900, 901
See also DNA structure; Form and function interrelationships; Proteins; Structure—function relationships; Form and function interrelationships
Structure—function relationships
In ecological communities, 904–905
See also Form and function interrelationships
Struthio camelus, 510
Styles, 439
Subclavian artery and vein, 668
Subduction, 361, 362
Submucosa, 635, 636
Subpopulations, 876–877, 878–880
Subsoil, 540
Substrates, 51
Subtropical desert, 855
Succession, 901–903
Succulence, 598
Sucrose
structure, 27
translocation in phloem, 552–553
Sugar beets, 105, 126
Sugars
produced by photosynthesis, 124, 125
See also Monosaccharides
Sulfhydryl group, 25
Sulfolobus, 389
Sulfur
covalent bonding capacity, 22
cycle, 926
prokaryotes and the sulfur cycle, 396
Sulfur dioxide, 363
Sulfur fertilizers, 541
Sulfurous acid, 363
Sumerians, 105
Summation, of postsynaptic potentials, 712–713
Sun compass, 836
Sunflowers, 602
Superior vena cava, 668
Suprachiasmatic nucleus, 621, 722
Surface area-to-volume ratio, 61–62
Surface tension, 24
Surface winds, 851
Survivorship, 868
Suspension feeders, 630
Suspensor, 524
Sustainable agriculture, 553–554
Sutherland, Earl, 99, 100
Sutterella, 392
Swallowtail butterfly, 497
Swarm cells, 413
Sweat glands, 512
Sweating, 614
Swim bladders, 504
Swordtail fish, 335–336
Sxl gene, 229
Sycon, 477
Symbiodinium, 417, 631
Symbioses
fungi and, 455
lichens, 455–456, 457
nutritionally important animal–microbe symbioses, 630–632
plant–microbe interactions, 541–545
of plants with nitrogen-fixing bacteria, 373
Symmetry
in animal body plans, 473
See also specific types of symmetry
Sympathetic nervous system
fight-or-flight response, 726, 739
structure and function, 725, 726
Sympatric populations, 354
Sympatric speciation, 350–351
Symplast, 547, 548, 553
Synapses
chemical, 709–710
defined, 700, 734
electrical, 709–710
fast or slow, 712
neuromuscular junctions, 710–711
neurosecretory cells and, 736–737
neurotransmitters, 711–712
summation of postsynaptic potentials, 712–713
Synapsis, 142, 143–144
Synaptic cleft, 709, 710
Synaptic plasticity, 713–714
Syncytium, 792, 793
Synergids, 575, 577
Synonymous substitutions
defined, 313
evolution of flu strains and, 323
in positive and purifying selection, 314–316
Synthetic cells, 60
Synthetic DNA, 262
Systematics, 327
Systemic acquired resistance, 592–593
Systemic circuit
in amphibians and non-avian reptiles, 666–667
in birds, 666
defined, 665
in fish, 665–666
in mammals, 666, 668
Systemic lupus erythematosis (SLE), 816
Systemic tissues, 649, 665
Systems
defined, 7, 846, 917
in thermodynamics, 32
open versus closed, 876, 920
See also Ecological Systems; Ecosystems; Feedback; Organ systems; Systems analysis
Systems analysis
control systems, 619–622, 734–736
enzymes and biochemical pathways, 53, 117
general principles, 8–9
negative feedback in, 8, 619–620
positive feedback in, 8, 620
systems diagrams, 7–9
See also Cocurrent systems; Countercurrent systems; Ecosystems; various organ systems, such as Circulatory system and Central nervous system
Systole, 667–668, 669
Szostak, Jack, 80
T
T4 bacteriophage, 221
T cell receptors
specificity, 816
structure and function, 822, 823
T cells
AIDS and, 824–825
antigen presentation and, 817
cellular immune response, 822–824
diversity and clonal selection, 816, 817
functions, 811
specificity, 816
T DNA, 259
T-helper (TH) cells
AIDS and, 824, 825
cellular immune response, 822–823, 824
functions of, 817–818
humoral immune response and, 823
regulation by Tregs, 824
T tubules, 686, 687
Tachyglossus aculeatus, 340
Tachypleus tridentatus, 810
Tadpoles, 805
Taeniura lymma, 504
Tail fins, 503, 504
Tail-less frogs, 506
Tailed salamanders, 506
Tamarugo tree, 598
Tamias striatus, 864
Tannins, 594
Taproots, 529, 530, 531, 532
Taraxacum officinale, 442
Tardigrades, 476, 491
Target cells
action of hormones on, 739
in intercellular communication, 734
receptor proteins, 737–738
sequence of hormonal signaling, 739
Tarsiers, 514, 515
Tat protein, 226
TATA box, 222
Tautomers, 189, 190
Taxon (pl. taxa)
defined, 327
Linnaean classification, 338–339
monophyletic, 339
Tay-Sachs disease, 71
Tea, 82
Tectorial membrane, 717, 718
Teeth, evolution in vertebrates, 503
Telomerase, 184
Telomeres, 183–184
Telophase
meiosis I, 141
mitosis, 135, 136, 137
Temperate grassland/desert, 855
Temperate seasonal forest, 855
Temperature
climate diagrams, 853
global warming, 926, 928 (see also Climate change; Global warming)
greenhouse effect, 926–927
impact on enzymes, 56–57
impact on membranes, 85
impact on protein structure, 47
induction of flowering, 584
influence on terrestrial biomes, 854
and lizard feeding, 871
net primary productivity and, 918
plant adaptations to temperature extremes, 600
See also Body temperature; Latitudinal temperature gradients
Temperature-sensitive mutations, 187
Template strand
in DNA expression, 197
in DNA replication, 179
Temporal isolation, 351, 352
Temporal lobe, 728
Tendons, 689
Tendrils, 531, 532
Teosinte, 534–535
TEOSINTE BRANCHED 1 gene, 535
Tepals, 440
Ter region, 132
Terminal bud, 527
Termination
of transcription, 199
of translation, 209, 210
Termination factors, 225
Termites, 495
Terpenes, 594
Terrestrial animals
excretion of nitrogenous wastes, 755–756
water–salt balance, 759–760
Terrestrial biomes, 854–856
Territories
I-39
behavioral partitioning, 841–842
defined, 842
Tertiary consumers, 889, 890
Tertiary endosymbiosis, 405
Tertiary period, 360–361, 371, 373–374
Tertiary protein structure, 45–46
Test crosses, 154, 155
Testate amoebas, 412
Testes
castration and, 733
cell types in, 772
endocrine functions, 736, 744
in mammals, 780
as primary reproductive organs, 770
sex steroids and sexual development, 746, 747
sex steroids and the regulation of mammalian reproduction, 776, 781
spermatogenesis, 771–772
testosterone and, 733, 772
Testosterone
actions of, 744
castration and, 733
discovery of, 733
production by interstitial cells, 772
role in sexual development, 746, 747
spermatogenesis in mammals, 781
structure, 738
Testudo hermanni, 787
Tetanus, 394
Tetracycline, 194, 213
Tetrads, 142, 143–144
Tetrahymena thermophila, 407
Tetraiodothyronine, 740
Tetrapods, 505
Tetrodotoxin (TTX), 321
Texas Longhorn cattle, 311–312
TFIID protein, 222
Thale cress. See Arabidopsis
Thallus, 456
Thaumarchaeota, 388, 390
Thecal cells, 772–773, 778, 779
Theory, 11
Therians, 512–514
See also Eutherians
Thermodynamics, laws of, 32–34
Thermoneutral zone (TNZ), 610–611
Thermophiles, 388, 389, 390
Thermoplasma, 390
Thermoregulation, in homeotherms, 610–611, 613–614
Thermotoga, 385
Thermotoga maritima, 382
Thermus, 385
Thermus aquaticus, 385
Theropods, 510, 511
Thiamin, 628
Thlaspi caerulescens, 601–602
Thoracic cavity, 655, 656, 657
Thorax, 494
Threonine, 43
Thrips, 495
Thromboxanes, 58
Thucydides, 809
Thylakoids, 72, 121–123
Thymine
base pairing, 38–40, 41
in DNA, 176, 177
in DNA replication, 179
structure, 38
Thymosins, 744
Thymus, 744
Thyroid gland
goiter, 745–746
major hormones and their actions, 744, 745
Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)
actions of, 744
goiter and, 745–746
releasing hormone for, 742
as a tropic hormone, 741
Thyroxine
functions, 745
half-life, 739
peripheral activation, 740
structure and function, 737, 738, 744
Thysanoptera, 495
Ti plasmid, 259
Ticks, 492
Tidal ventilation, 646–647, 651–652
Tidal volume, 656
Tight junctions, 78, 79
Tijuana Estuary, 913
Tiktaalik, 506
Tilman, David, 905–906
Tinamous, 511
Tissue fluids
fluid compartments, 615–616
internal environment and, 609
open circulatory systems, 664, 665
Tissue plasminogen activator, 267
Tissue-specific promoters, 265
Tissue systems
defined, 525
of plants, 524, 525–526
Tissues
defined, 6, 524–525, 616
plant tissue systems, 524, 525–526
Titin, 683, 684
Toads
characteristics of, 506
hopping behavior and ATP production, 832–833
hybrid zones, 354–355
Tobacco hornworms, 593
Tobacco plants, photoperiod and flowering, 580
Tobacco smoke, epigenetic gene expression and, 229
Tocopherol, 682
Toll-like receptors, 810
Tomatoes, salt-tolerant transgenics, 269–270
Tonicella lineata, 486
Topography, 852–853
Topsoil, 540
Torpedo, 696–697
Tortoiseshell cats, 228
Totipotency
defined, 275
nuclear totipotency in animals, 276, 277
of plant cells, 275–276
plant development and, 523
Touch perception, nose tentacles of star-nosed moles, 699, 730, 731
Toxigenicity, 394
Toxins, bacterial, 394
Toxoplasma, 406
Trachea, 649, 654, 655
Tracheae, 653–654
Tracheal breathing systems, 653–654
Tracheids, 421, 428, 526
Tracheophytes, 421
See also Vascular plants
Trachoma, 387
Tracts, 701
Trade winds, 851
Trail following behavior, 834–835
“Training effect,” 693–694
Traits
ancestral and derived, 328
defined, 151
homoplasies, 328
Mendelian inheritance, 151–158
quantitative, 160
Trametes versicolor, 465
Transcription
chromatin remodeling and, 226–227
coding regions and introns, 199–201
complementary base pairing and, 41
defined, 197
in the expression of genetic information, 40, 41
inducers and inducible genes, 217
initiation, elongation, and termination, 198–199
key components, 197–198
phytochrome-mediated effects in plants, 569–570
RNA polymerases, 198, 199
start and stop signals, 210
Transcription factor genes, floral organ development in plants, 284, 285
Transcription factors
actions at promoters, 222–223
cell differentiation and, 223–224
coordinated gene expression and, 224, 225
CREB, 215, 227, 232
cytoplasmic determinants, 280
in gene regulation, 216, 222–223
histone modifications and, 227
Transcription initiation site, 198
Transcriptional regulation
compared to allosteric regulation, 219–220
in eukaryotes, 222–225
life cycles of eukaryotic viruses, 225–226
in prokaryotes, 216–220
regulatory proteins in, 216
RNA polymerase and sigma factors, 220
viral reproduction, 220–221
Transfer RNA (tRNA)
structure, 206
in translation, 197, 206–207, 208–209, 210
tRNA genes, 246, 247
Transformation
defined, 258
methods in, 258–260
model organisms, 258
reporter genes, 260–261
Transformation experiments, 174, 175
Transformation vectors, 259–260
Transgenic organisms, 174, 258
Transition state, 50
Translation
action of antibiotics and, 213
defined, 197
in the expression of genetic information, 40, 41
function of ribosomes in, 207–208
function of tRNA in, 206–207
initiation, elongation, and termination, 208–209, 210
polysomes, 209–210
regulation of, 230–231
start and stop signals, 210
Translational repressor proteins, 231
Translocase, 387
Translocations, 146, 189, 551–553
Transmembrane proteins, 85
Transpiration
defined 549
stomatal control of, 550–551
transpiration–cohesion–tension mechanism, 548–550
and water cycle, 921, 922
Transposons
DNA mutations and, 247
eukaryotic genomes, 246, 247
as experimental mutagens, 242, 243
in the human genome, 247, 248
in prokaryotic genomes, 241–242
Transverse tubules, 686, 687
Transverse (T) tubules, 711
Treadmills, 605
Tree ferns, 429
Tree of life, 4–5, 374
Tree shrews, 514
Trees, secondary growth and annual rings, 533–534
Tregs, 824, 825
Trehalase, 634, 638
Trehalose, 634
Triassic period, 360–361, 373
Triceros jacksonii, 509
Trichinella spiralis, 489
Trichinosis, 489
Trichocysts, 407
I-40
Trichomes, 525, 598
Trichomonas vaginalis, 410, 411
Trichoptera, 495
Triglycerides, 29–30, 94–95
Triiodothyronine, 740, 744, 745
Trimeresurus gramineus, 723
Trimesters, 803
Triodia, 855, 856
Triops longicaudatus, 493
Triose phosphate, 124
Triple covalent bonds, 22
Trisomy, 145
Triterpenes, 594
Triticum aestivum, 446
Trochopores, 480, 481
Trophic cascades, 890–891, 912
Trophic interactions, 889, 890, 921
Trophic levels, 889, 890, 904
Trophoblast, 793, 794
Trophosomes, 485
Tropic hormones, 741
Tropical biomes, 854, 855
Tropical forests, habitat
fragmentation and, 911, 912
Tropical rain forests, 855
Tropical seasonal forest/savanna, 855
Tropics
atmospheric circulation patterns, 850–851
biomes, 854, 855
species richness in, 906–907
Tropins, 741
Tropomyosin, 685, 687, 688
Troponin, 685, 687, 688
Trp operon, 218, 219–220
True bugs, 495, 496, 497
True flies, 495, 496, 497
Truffles, 464
Trypanosoma brucei, 411
Trypanosoma cruzi, 411
Trypsin, 633, 634
Tryptophan, 43, 219, 737
Tsien, Roger, 325
TTX-resistant sodium channels, 321
Tuataras, 508, 509
Tubal ligation, 781
Tube feet, 498, 499
Tuberculosis, 385
Tubers, 531, 532, 585–586
Tubular fluid, 762, 763
Tubulidentata, 514
Tubulin
microtubules, 74
mitotic spindle, 135
Tulipa, 446
Tulips, 446
Tumor necrosis factor, 813
Tumor suppressors, 148
Tunas
circulatory system, 661
countercurrent heat exchange, 675, 678–679
gills, 661
swimming muscles, 661, 675, 689
ventilation of gills, 651
Tundra, 854, 855
Tunicates, 476, 500–501
Turbill, Christopher, 625
Turgor pressure, 72, 89, 545–546
Turkana people, 869, 870
Turnover, in species composition, 900–903
Tursiops truncatus, 513
Turtles, 510, 775
Twisted-wing parasites, 495
Two-dimensional gel electrophoresis, 238, 239
Two-pronged bristletails, 494
Tylenol, 37
Tympanic canal, 718
Tympanic membrane, 717, 718
Tympanuchus cupido, 305
Type II diabetes mellitus, 738
Typhoid fever, 809
Tyrosine, 43, 195, 738
U
Ubiquitin, 231
Ug99 wheat rust strain, 589
Ulcers, 393
Ulmus procera, 586
Ulna, 292–293
Ultimate explanations, 11
Ultrabithorax gene, 289–290, 291–292
Ultrafiltration, 761
Ultraviolet (UV) radiation, 4, 190, 191
Ultraviolet wavelengths, perception of, 722, 723
Ulva latuca, 423
Umbels, 440
Unicellular yeasts, 451
Unidirectional ventilation
in bird lungs, 652–653
defined, 647
in gills, 647, 651
Unipotency, 275
Unsaturated fatty acids
in membranes, 85
structure and properties, 29–30
Upwellings, 852
Uracil
base pairing, 38
formed from cytosine deamination, 189, 190
structure, 38
Urea, 755, 756
Ureotelic animals, 756
Ureter, 753
Urethra, 753, 780
Urey, Harold, 34, 35
Uric acid, 755, 756
Uricotelic animals, 756
Urinary bladder, 753
Urine
alkaptonuria, 195
defined, 752
of desert kangaroo rats, 759–760
of hyposmotic regulators, 757
produced by the kidneys from blood plasma, 752–753, 760–764, 765
urine/plasma ratios, 753–754
Urine/plasma ratios, 753–754
U.S. Supreme Court, 253
U.S.–Mexico Borderlands, 855
changes in climate and species composition, 902, 903
ecological importance of fire, 856
impact of cattle grazing on, 845
restoration efforts, 845, 862–863
Usnea, 456
Uterus
birth contractions, 620, 780
blastocyst implantation, 777, 793, 794
pregnancy, 779–780
UV radiation. See Ultraviolet radiation
V
Vaccines/Vaccinations, 298, 323, 825–826
Vacuoles
contractile, 73, 407
digestive, 407
functions, 72–73
in plant cells, 67
Vagina, 777
Valine, 43, 196
van der Waals interactions, 22, 45, 177
Vancomycin, 169
Variable region, 819
Variables, 13
Vas deferens, 772, 780
Vascular bundles, 530–531, 533
Vascular cambium, 527, 533
Vascular endothelium, 663
Vascular plants
defined, 421
evolution and diversification, 428–432
in the evolution of plants, 422
heterospory, 431–432
impact on atmospheric oxygen levels, 365
major groups, 424
vascular tissue, 428
Vascular system
blood pressure and the linear velocity of blood flow, 673–674
countercurrent heat exchange, 674–675
defined, 673
fluid loss in capillaries, 675–676
lymphatic system, 676
types and functions of blood vessels, 673
Vascular tissue
of vascular plants, 428
See also Phloem; Xylem
Vascular tissue system
description of, 524, 526
of leaves, 531
primary meristem creating, 527
of roots, 528–529
of shoots, 530–531
Vasectomy, 781
Vasomotor control, 663
Vasopressin. See Antidiuretic hormone
Vectors,
in disease, 864, 880
in genetic transformation, 259–260
Vegetal hemisphere, 789, 792, 794
“Vegetal pole,” 280
Vegetative cells, 385
Vegetative reproduction, 585–586, 587
Veins
in closed circulatory systems, 663
countercurrent heat exchange, 674–675
direction of blood flow in, 665
structure and function, 673, 674
Velvet worms, 491
Venter, Craig, 60, 240
Ventilation
in cocurrent and countercurrent gas exchange systems, 649–650
defined, 646
of fish gills, 651
tidal, 646–647, 651–652
unidirectional, 647, 651
Ventral, 473
Ventral nerve, 724
Ventricles
in amphibians and non-avian reptiles, 666–667
mammalian heart, 667–668
Venules, 663, 673–674
Venus flytrap, 544, 545
Veratrum californicum, 787, 806
Veratrum viride, 787
Vernalization, 584
Vertebral column, 501, 502
Vertebrate digestive system
anatomy of, 635, 636
digestive enzymes, 635–636
hindgut, 637, 638–639
midgut, 637–638
processing, digestion, and absorption of food, 636–638
reabsorption of water and salts, 638–639
Vertebrates
adaptations to life on land, 505–508
amniotes, 506, 508, 509
amphibians, 506–508
appendages, 474
body plan, 501, 502
cardiac muscle, 695
central nervous system, 724, 724
evolution of feathers and flight, 511
evolution of jaws and teeth, 503
evolution of limbs, 505
forebrain evolution, 727–728
jawless fishes, 501–503
key features, 500
kidney production of urine, 752–753
lobe-limbed, 504, 505–506
major subgroups, 476
mammals, 511–514 (see also Mammals)
I-41
morphogen gradients in limb development, 283
phylogeny of, 502
reptiles, 508–510
smooth muscle, 695–696
undiscovered living species, 518
Vervet monkeys, 839, 840
Vesicles
endocytosis, 93–95
exocytosis, 93
functions of, 68, 69, 70
Vespula vulgaris, 894
Vessel elements, 439, 526
Vessel lumen, 663
Vestibular canal, 718
Vestibular system, 718
Vibrio, 378, 387, 399
Vibrio cholerae, 387, 394
Victoria (Queen of England), 169, 170
Victoria cruziana, 445
Villi, 637, 638
Virions, 221
Viruses
abundance of, 396
bacteriophage transformation experiments, 174
difficulties in studying, 396
DNA viruses, 397, 399
evolution and, 298, 322–323
gene regulation and reproduction, 220–221
life cycles of eukaryotic viruses, 225–226
metagenomics, 241
pandemics, 298
as part of life, 396
phage therapy, 399
RNA viruses, 396–399
as transformation vectors, 259–260
Visceral mass, 485, 486
Visual cortex, 715, 721
Visual systems
perception of infrared and ultraviolet wavelengths, 722–723
photoreceptors and the detection of light, 718–719
vertebrate retina, 719–721
Vital capacity, 656
“Vital force,” 18
Vitamin A, 627–628
Vitamin A deficiency, 269
Vitamin B1, 628
Vitamin B2, 628
Vitamin B3, 628
Vitamin B5, 628
Vitamin B6, 628
Vitamin B12, 392, 628
Vitamin C, 682
Vitamin D, 682
Vitamin E, 682
Vitamin K, 392, 682
Vitamins, in animal nutrition, 627–628, 641
Vitelline artery, 802
Vitelline envelope, 774
Volcanoes
impact on climate and life, 363, 930
origins of, 361, 362
and sulfur cycle, 926
Volicitin, 595–596
Voltage, 702, 703
Voltage-gated channels
action potentials and, 707–708
membrane potential and, 705
at neuromuscular junctions, 711
in photoreceptors, 719
Voltage-gated ion channels, structure and function, 89
von Behring, Emil, 815
von Humboldt, Alexander, 906
Vulpes lagopus, 674
Vulpes vulpes, 784
Vulval development, in C. elegans, 281–282
W
Waggle dance, 837
Wagoire, William, 589
Wallace, Alfred Russel, 300, 857–858
Walter, Heinrich, 853
Wang, Yong-Xu, 694
Wasps
mechanical isolation in orchids and, 351
number of species, 495
Wastewater treatment, 271
Water
global cycle, 921–922
heat capacity, 23
heat of vaporization, 23
metabolic, 760
movement through aquaporins, 89–90
osmosis, 88–89
properties of hydrogen bonds, 23–24
reabsorption in the hindgut, 638–639
as a requirement for life, 18
stomatal control of water loss in plants, 550–551
supply, as ecosystem service, 911
xylem transport in plants, 545–550
See also Water–salt balance
Water bears, 491
Water cycle, 921–922
Water-depth zones, 857
Water fleas, 618 (see also Daphnia)
Water lily, 440, 445
Water molds, 408–409
Water potential, 545–546, 598
Water-soluble vitamins, 628
Water stress, impact on stomata, 551
Water vapor, as a greenhouse gas, 927, 928
Water vascular system, 498
Water–salt balance
in aquatic animals, 756–758
defined, 752
extrarenal salt excretion, 754–755
regulation of body fluid composition by the kidneys, 752–755
in salmon, 751, 766
terrestrial animals, 759–760
Watershed protection, 910
Watson, James D., 176–177, 178, 302
Wavelength,
of light, 119, 120
and temperature of an object, 926
Wavyleaf thistle, 892
Weather
defined, 362, 849
impact of global warming and climate change on, 927, 931
impact of mountains on, 852–853
Weathering, of parent rock, 540
Webbing, in hindlimb development, 290, 291
Webs/Web spinning, 492, 828
Webspinners, 495
Weedy seadragon, 505
Wegener, Alfred, 361
Weizmann, Chaim, 253
Welwitschia, 436
Welwitschia mirabilis, 436
Wernicke’s area, 728, 730
Wernig, Marius, 224
Westerlies, 851
Wetland restorations, 913
Wetlands, 856
Whale shark, 630
Wheat, 446
pathogenic fungi, 454, 589, 602, 603
semi-dwarf varieties, 555, 570–571
Wheat rust strain Ug99, 589, 602, 603
Whip scorpion, 488
Whippets, 251
White blood cells
in blood, 677
functions in the immune system, 811
types of, 811
White-footed mice, 830, 841, 864
White matter, 702
White spruce, 436
Widowbirds, 306, 307
Wild mustard, 303–304, 535
Wild type, 158
Willow bark, 37
Wilson, Edward O., 302, 907
Winds, 851
Wine, 126
Winged beetles, 496
Winged insects, 495–496, 497
Wings
development in insects, 289–290
evolution in birds and bats, 292–293, 328
evolution in insects, 495–496
Winter moths, 930, 931
Wishart, David, 250
Witchweed, 544, 545
Wolpert, Lewis, 283
Wolves, 890–891, 904, 912
Wood, secondary xylem, 435, 533
Woodchucks, 615
Woodland/shrubland, 854, 855
Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution (WHOI), 401
World Climate Conference, 932
World Meteorological Organization, 932
X
X chromosome inactivation, 228
X chromosomes
heterochromatin and inactivation, 228
sex determination in animals, 775
sex-linked hemophilia, 169, 170
sex-linked traits in Drosophila, 164–166
X-linked inherited diseases, 824
X-ray crystallography, 174, 175
Xanthopan morgani, 420
Xanthoria parietina, 456
Xenopus laevis, 454
Xeric terrestrial animals, 759–760
Xerophytes, 598
Xestospongia, 477
Xiphophorus, 335–336
Xylem
of angiosperms, 439
function, 428, 526
in leaves, 531
in roots, 529
secondary, 533
in shoots, 530–531
water and solute transport in, 545–550
wood and, 435
Xylocopa darwinii, 892, 894
Y
Y chromosomes
sex determination in animals, 775
SRY gene, 746, 775
Yamanaka, Shinya, 279
Yeasts
alcoholic fermentation, 116, 126
genetic transformation, 258
genome characteristics, 244
sac fungus yeasts, 462, 464
unicellular, 451
See also Saccharomyces cerevisiae
Yellow-bellied toad, 354–355
Yellow star-thistle, 891 (see also Centaurea solstistialis)
Yellowstone National Park, 890–891, 904, 912
Yellowstone to Yukon Conservation Initiative, 912
Yersinia, 387
Yersinia pestis, 394
Yews, 438
Yolk
effect on cleavage, 792
effect on gastrulation, 794
Yolk sac, 802–804
I-42
Z
Z-DNA (“zig-zag DNA”), 177
Z line, 683, 684
Zea mays, 574
Zeaxanthin, 568
Zebra butterflies, 895
Zebrafish, incomplete cleavage, 793
Zinc
in animal nutrition, 629
as an enzyme cofactor, 52
zinc-tolerant plants, 601–602
Zinnia, 440
Zone of cell division, 528
Zone of cell elongation, 528
Zone of cell maturation, 528
Zone of polarizing activity (ZPA), 283
Zoopagomycotina, 459
Zoospores, 460, 461
Zoraptera, 495
Zuckerkandl, Emile, 337
Zur-Hausen, Harald, 129
Zygomycota, 458, 459
Zygosporangium, 460, 461
Zygospore, 460, 461
Zygospore fungi
characteristics of, 459
in a phylogeny of the fungi, 458
reproduction in, 460–462
Zygote
in animal reproduction, 769, 777
defined, 274
development in plants, 524
egg and sperm contributions in animal development, 788
formation in fertilization, 131
implantation in placental mammals, 793, 794
polarity, 280, 788–789