Chapter 1. INDEX

I-1

A (aminoacyl) site, 4-9, 4-9, 4-13

ABC model, 20-14–20-15, 20-15

Abomasum, 40-22, 40-22

Abortions, spontaneous, 15-13, 15-15, 15-15–15-16, 19-4

Abscisic acid, 31-7t, 31-8, 31-20

and stomata, 29-5

Absolute temperature (T), 6-7

Acacia trees [Acacia cornigera], 32-11–32-12, 32-12

Accessory pigments, 8-9

Acetabularia [alga], 27-15

Acetyl-CoA

in the citric acid cycle, 7-9, 7-9

synthesis of, 7-7–7-8, 7-8

Acetylcholine, 35-14

Acidic amino acids, 4-2, 4-3

Acidic solutions, 2-7

Acoelomates, 44-3, 44-3

Acorn worms, 44-18, 44-18

Acquired immunity, 43-1. See also Adaptive immune system

Acrosomes, 42-10, 42-11

ACTH. See Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)

Actin, 10-4, 37-2

and mitosis, 11-7, 11-7

and muscle contraction, 10-8, 37-4–37-6, 37-5

and muscle structure, 37-3, 37-3, 37-4

polymerization of, and cell movement, 10-10–10-11, 10-11

regulation of, 37-6–37-7, 37-7

Action potentials, 35-4, 35-5, 35-8, 35-9, 35-11

in cardiac muscle, 39-20

propagation of, 35-8, 35-10, 35-10–35-12

and sensory receptors, 36-4, 36-4–36-5

Activation energy (E_A), 6-10, 6-10

Activation [of receptors], 9-2, 9-2

Activators, 6-13–6-14, 19-11, 19-11

Active sites, 6-11, 6-11

Active transport, 5-10

primary, 5-9–5-10, 5-10

secondary, 5-10–5-11, 5-11

Acute phase response, 43-5–43-6

Adaptation [natural selection], 21-3

Adaptation [sensory receptors], 36-5

Adaptive immune system, 43-1, 43-7–43-13

and antibodies, 43-8, 43-8–43-9

and B cells, 43-7–43-8

cells of, 43-3

and clonal selection, 43-9, 43-9–43-10

features of, 43-2t

and genomic rearrangement, 43-10–43-13, 43-12

and immunological memory, 43-10, 43-10

Addition rule, 16-9–16-10, 16-10

Adenine (A), 2-12, 2-12, 3-5, 3-5

pairing of, 3-7

Adenosine triphosphate (ATP), 1-12, 6-1, 7-1, 40-2

and ATP synthase, 7-12, 7-12–7-13

and Calvin cycle, 8-7

and cross-bridge cycles, 37-5, 37-5–37-6

as energy currency, 6-4–6-5

hydrolysis of, 6-8, 6-8–6-9, 6-9

and metabolism, 40-2

and nutrient uptake by roots, 29-16

and regulation of cellular respiration, 7-19, 7-19–7-20

and slow-twitch fibers, 37-12

structure of, 6-5

synthesis of, in cellular respiration, 7-4–7-5, 7-5, 7-7t

synthesis of, in citric acid cycle, 7-8–7-10, 7-9

synthesis of, in organelles, 5-22–5-23

synthesis of, in photosynthesis, 8-13

Adenovirus, 13-17, 13-18

ADH. See Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)

Adherens junctions, 10-12–10-13, 10-14, 10-15t

Adipose tissue, 7-18

Adrenal glands, 38-12, 38-15

Adrenal medulla, 38-16

Adrenaline. See also Epinephrine

and cell signaling, 9-9, 9-9–9-11, 9-10, 9-11

and fight-or-flight response, 38-16

Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), 38-9t, 38-10

Advantageous mutations, 21-2–21-3

Advertisement displays, 45-15, 45-15, 45-20, 45-21

Aerobic metabolism, 40-2–40-3

Aerobic reactions, 26-6

Afferent neurons, 35-16

Agave shawii [monocot], 33-17, 33-17

Age structures, 46-8, 46-8

Aging, and telomeres, 12-9

Agonists, 37-10, 37-10

Agriculture [Case 6], C6-2–C6-4, C6-3. See also Animal husbandry

by ants, 34-6

and atmospheric carbon dioxide, 25-6, 48-3

and biodiversity, 48–13–48-17, 48-16

and C₄ plants, 29-8

and centers of origin, 33-20–33-21, 33-21

and complex traits, 18-2, 18-2, 18-3

criticisms of, C6-4

and directional selection, 21-12, 21-12

and double fertilization, 30-15

and ecology, 48-12–48-13

and evolution, 1-18

and fungal pathogens, 34-4, 34-4

and fungi, 34-19, 34-19

and genetically modified organisms, 12-19, 12-19–12-20, 32-17–32-18, 32-18

and germination, 30-21–30-22

and hormones, 31-9–31-10

and human activities, 48-14–48-15, 48-15

and inheritance, 16-1

and nitrogen fixation, 29-18

and photoperiodism, 30-17

and pollination modes, 30-12

and polyploidy, 13-9–13-10, 13-10

sustainable, 48-15

and symbiotic relationships, 33-10–33-11

and vernalization, 30-18, 30-22

Albinism, 16-16, 16-16

Albumin, expression of, 10-20, 10-20

Aldoses, 2-14, 2-14

Aldosterone, 41-19

Algae, 27-9, 27-13–27-15, 27-14, 27-15

brown, 27-16, 27-16, 28-3

and Calvin cycle, 8-7–8-8

as cellular organisms, 1-9

and chlorophyll, 8-11

complex multicellular, 28-3, 28-4

and eutrophication, 48-11, 48-11

green, 27-14, 27-14–27-15, 27-15

life cycle of, 30-2, 30-3

and the long-term carbon cycle, 25-14

red, 27-13, 27-14, 27-20, 27-21, 28-3

simple multicellular, 28-2, 28-2–28-3, 28-3

and spread of photosynthesis, 27-16–27-19, 27-19

Algoriphagus machipongonesis [bacterium], 28-6–28-7

Alkaloids, 32-10, 32-10t

Alland, Henry, 30-17

Allele frequencies, 21-3

and Hardy–Weinberg equilibrium, 21-7, 21-7

and natural selection, 21-10

Alleles, 15-2, 15-2, 16-5

multiple, 16-16–16-17

and mutations, 21-2, 21-3

segregation of, 16-8, 16-8

Allopatric speciation, 22-6–22-11, 22-7, 22-8, 22-9, 22-10

Allosteric effects, 19-11–19-12

Allosteric enzymes, 6-14–6-15

in cellular respiration, 7-20

a carbons, 2-11, 2-11, 4-2, 4-2

a helices, 4-5–4-6, 4-6

Alpine biome, 47-17, 47-17

Alternation of generations, 30-3, 30-3

Alternative energy sources, 48-10, 48-10–48-11

Alternative RNA splicing, 3-17, 3-17, 19-6–19-7, 19-7

and antibodies, 43-12

Altruism, 45-16

reciprocal, 45-17–45-18

Alvarez, Walter, 1-5

Alveolates [Alveolata], 27-16, 27-17

Visual Synthesis of history of, 44-30

Alveoli, 39-7, 39-8

I-2

Alzheimer’s, 16-17, 19-10

Amacrine cells, 36-15, 36-15

Amanita [fungus], 34-17

Amber, fossils in, C8-2, 47-22, 47-22–47-23

Amborella trichopoda [angiosperm], 33-15, 33-16

Amide groups, 4-3

Amine hormones, 38-7, 38-7–38-8

Amino acids, 2-11, 2-11

composition of, 4-2, 4-3

essential, 40-10, 40-10t

evolution of, 21-16

experimental generation of, 2-18

structure of, 4-2, 4-2

Amino ends, 4-4, 4-4

Amino groups, 2-11, 2-11, 4-2, 4-2

Aminoacyl tRNA synthetases, 4-10, 4-10

Ammonia

as alternative medium for life, 2-8

and Archaea, 26-18

and nitrogen fixation, 26-11–26-12, 29-17

as nitrogenous waste, 41-7, 41-7

Ammonites, 44-14

extinction of, 23-18

Amnion, 42-9, 42-9

Amniotes, 44-25–44-27

Amniotic eggs, 42-8–42-9, 42-9, 44-25–44-26

Amoebas

endosymbiosis in, 27-6, 27-6

movement of, 10-10–10-11, 10-11, 27-9

Amoebozoa, 27-12, 27-12–27-13, 27-13

history of, 27-21, 27-21

Visual Synthesis of history of, 44-31

Amphibians [Amphibia], 44-25

and cell adhesion, 10-11, 10-12

differentiation in, 20-3, 20-3, 20-4

hearts of, 39-18, 39-18–39-19

and human activities, 48-19, 48-19

kidneys of, 41-11, 41-11

life cycle of, 44-24, 44-25

Visual Synthesis of history of, 44-31

Amphioxus [cephalochordate], 44-19, 44-20, 44-21

Amphipathic molecules, 5-2, 5-2

Amplification, 12-11, 12-12

Amylase, 40-15

Anabaena [cyanobacterium], 26-16

Anabolism, 6-3, 6-3, 40-3

and entropy, 6-6, 6-7–6-8, 6-8

Anaerobic metabolism, 7-14–7-17, 7-15, 40-2–40-3

Anaerobic processes, 7-5

Analogous characters, 23-5, 23-5–23-6, 44-2

Anammox reaction, 26-11–26-12

Anaphase [mitosis], 11-5, 11-6

Anaphase I [meiosis], 11-9, 11-10

and independent assortment of alleles, 16-12–16-13, 16-13

and segregation of alleles, 16-8, 16-8

Anaphase II [meiosis], 11-10, 11-11

Ancestry

and mitochondrial DNA, 17-15–17-16, 17-16, 24-14

and X-linked inheritance, 17-7, 17-7–17-8, 17-8

and Y-linked inheritance, 17-13–17-15, 17-14

Anchor cells, 20-16, 20-16

Anchor proteins, 5-5, 5-5

Androgen, 38-4t

Angiosperms, 29-2, 30-9–30-16. See also Gymnosperms

double fertilization of, 30-15

fruits of, 30-15–30-16, 30-16

life cycle of, 30-14

and photoperiodism, 30-17–30-22

phylogenetic tree for, 33-15

self-compatible versus self-incompatible, 30-12

Visual Synthesis of, 33-22–33-23

wood of, 31-12–31-13, 31-13

Angiotensin II, 41-19

Anglerfish, 42-1, 42-4

Animal behavior, 1-1, 45-1–45-2

and communication, 45-13–45-16

and genes, 45-2–45-8

hormonal control of, 38-14

and information processing, 45-11–45-13

and learning, 45-8–45-11

and sexual selection, 45-19–45-21

social, 45-16–45-19

Animal circulatory systems, 39-1, 39-13–39-17

closed versus open, 39-13–39-14, 39-14

and gas exchange, 39-1–39-3

and the heart, 39-17–39-22

Animal endocrine systems, 38-1–38-7

functioning of, 38-1–38-4, 38-2, 38-5

and homeostasis, 38-5–38-7, 38-6, 38-16

and hormones, 38-7–38-12

and pheromones, 38-16–38-18

and reproductive systems, 42-13

vertebrate, 38-12–38-16

Animal husbandry. See also Agriculture [Case 6]

and complex traits, 18-2, 18-2

and genetically modified organisms, 12-19, 12-19–12-20

and inheritance, 16-1

Animal immune systems, 43-1

adaptive, 43-7–43-13

and appendix, 40-23

and cell-mediated immunity, 43-13–43-16

and infections, 43-16–43-19

innate, 43-1–43-7

organs of, 43-7

Animal metabolism, 40-1–40-7. See also Cellular respiration; Digestion; Energy harnessing

and digestion, 40-14–40-23

and feeding, 40-12–40-14

and nutrition, 40-7–40-11

Animal movement, 37-1

and muscle contraction, 37-8–37-12

and muscle structure, 37-1–37-7

and skeletons, 37-13–37-19

Animal nervous systems, 35-1–35-2, 35-3. See also Brains; Neurons

and behaviors, 45-3–45-4, 45-4

evolution of, 35-1–35-2

function of, 35-2–35-4, 35-3

and homeostasis, 35-2, 35-17–35-18, 35-18

organization of, 35-15, 35-15–35-19, 35-17, 35-18

Animal renal systems, 41-1

and excretion, 41-7–41-12

and kidneys, 41-12–41-19

and osmoregulation, 41-1–41-7

Animal reproduction

and colonization of land, 42-7, 42-7–42-9

and female reproductive systems, 42-11–42-14, 42-12, 42-13, 42-14

history of, 42-1–42-7

and male reproductive systems, 42-9–42-11, 42-10, 42-11

Animal respiratory systems, 39-1

and breathing, 39-4–39-9

and gas exchange, 39-1–39-3

and oxygen transport, 39-10–39-13

Animal sensory systems, 36-1–36-5. See also Senses

and the brain, 36-17–36-19

and cognition, 36-20, 36-20–36-21, 36-21

and sense of sight, 36-10–36-16

and sense of smell, 36-5–36-6, 36-6

and sense of sound, 36-8, 36-8–36-10, 36-9, 36-10

Animals. See also Bilaterians [Bilateria]; Cnidarians [Cnidaria]; Sponges [Porifera]; Vertebrates [Vertebrata]

bulk transport in, 28-5, 28-5–28-6

cognition in, 36-21

as complex multicellular organisms, 28-3, 28-4

diploblastic versus triploblastic, 44-4, 44-4

early evolution of, 28-12–28-13, 28-13

evolutionary history of, 44-27–44-29, 44-30–44-31

life cycle of, 27-4, 27-4

phylogenetic tree for, 28-12, 44-1–44-2, 44-2

versus plants, 28-10, 28-11, 28-11–28-12

Visual Synthesis of history of, 44-31

Annealing, PCR, 12-11, 12-12

Annelid worms [Annelida], 44-11–44-12, 44-12

Cambrian, 44-28

Annual clocks, 45-12–45-13

Anolis [lizard]

and biodiversity hotspots, C8-2

fossils of, in amber, 47-22, 47-22

hormonal control of behavior in, 45-4–45-5, 45-5

and island biogeography, 46-15–46-16, 46-16

niches of, 47-2, 47-2

Anoxygenic bacteria, 26-7, 26-7, 26-16

Antagonisms, 47-3, 47-3–47-5, 47-8t

and competition, 47-4, 47-4

and niche divergence, 47-4–47-5

and predation, 47-5, 47-5

Antagonist muscles, 37-10, 37-10

Antelope, 37-12, 37-19

Antenna chlorophylls, 8-10, 8-11

Anterior pituitary gland, 38-12, 38-13, 38-13

Anthers, 16-4, 16-4, 30-9, 30-10

Anthoceros [hornwort], 33-3

Anthropocene, 48-1–48-2, 48-2. See also Human activities

Antibiotics. See Drugs

Antibodies, 43-7, 43-8

classes of, 43-8, 43-8–43-9

diversity of, 43-10–43-13, 43-12

production of, 43-7–43-8

I-3

Antidiuretic hormone (ADH), 38-9t, 38-14, 41-17, 41-17. See also Vasopressin

and behavior, 45-8

Antigen-presenting cells, 43-15, 43-15

Antigenic drift, 43-17, 43-17

Antigenic shift, 43-17, 43-17

Antigenic variation, 43-19

Antigens, 43-7

and T cell activation, 43-14–43-15, 43-15

Antiparallel strands, 3-7, 3-7

Antiporters, 5-10

Ants

agriculture of, 34-6

communication by, 45-14

and kin selection, 45-19

leaf-cutter, 1-17

and pheromones, 38-18, 38-18

and plant defenses, 32-11, 32-11–32-12, 32-12

zombie, 34-16, 34-16

Aortas, 39-19, 39-20

Aortic bodies, 39-9, 39-9

Aortic valves, 39-19, 39-20

Apes, 24-1–24-5, 24-2

Aphanothece [cyanobacterium], 26-16

Aphids, C5-4, 47-6–47-7, 47-7

Apical dominance, 31-10, 31-10

Apical membranes, 10-14, 10-15

Apolipoprotein B, 19-7, 19-7

Appendicular skeletons, 37-15, 37-15

Appendix, 40-22–40-23

Apples, 30-12, 30-15

Aquaporins, 5-9, 41-2

Aquaspirillum [bacterium], 45-11

Aqueous solutions, 2-7

acidic versus basic, 2-7

Arabidopsis thaliana [mouse-ear cress], 20-13–20-15, 20-14, 20-15

cyanobacterial genes in, 27-6

and hormones, 31-20

pollen tubes in, 30-10

and vernalization, 30-18–30-19, 30-19

Archaea, 1-12, 26-1, 26-5–26-6, 26-6. See also Bacteria; Eukarya; specific archaeon

binary fusion in, 11-2, 11-2

diversity of, 26-16–26-19, 26-18

evolutionary history of, 26-20, 26-20–26-23

gene regulation in, 19-13

genomes of, 13-8–13-9

and the nitrogen cycle, 26-10–26-12, 26-11

phylogenetic tree for, 26-14, 26-17, 26-17

and the sulfur cycle, 26-10, 26-10

Visual Synthesis of history of, 44-30

Archaeopteryx lithographica [dinosaur-bird], 23-16, 23-17

Archaeplastida, 27-13–27-15, 27-14. See also Algae; Plants

history of, 27-20–27-21

Visual Synthesis of history of, 44-31

Ardi, 24-4–24-5, 24-5

Ardipithecus ramidus [hominin], 24-4–24-5, 24-5

Aristotle, 2-1, 16-2, 34-12

Armadillos, 37-19, 37-19

Arnold, William, 8-10–8-11

Artemisinin, C4-4

Arteries, 39-14, 39-15–39-16

pulmonary, 39-19, 39-20

Arterioles, 39-14, 39-15

Arthrobotrys [fungus], 34-5,34-5

Arthropods [Arthropoda], 44-14–44-17

Cambrian, 44-28

exoskeletons of, 37-13, 37-13–37-14

phylogenetic tree for, 44-17

Visual Synthesis of history of, 44-31

Artificial selection, 1-12–1-13, 1-13, 21-12, 21-12–21-13

and behaviors, 45-5, 45-5–45-6

and genetic variation, 33-21

and heritability, 18-8

limits of, 21-12, 21-12

Ascomycetes, 34-14, 34-14–34-16

life cycle of, 34-15, 34-15

Asexual reproduction, 11-1, 42-2, 42-2–42-3

and biological species concept, 22-3–22-4

evolutionary problems with, 42-4–42-7

vegetative, 30-22, 30-22–30-23

Aspen trees, 30-22, 30-23

Assimilation, 26-10, 26-10

Associative learning, 45-9

Astrocytes, 35-6

Atelopus varius [toad], 48-19

Athyrium felix-femina [lady-fern], 33-9

Atmosphere

history of oxygen in, 25-14, 25-14–25-15, 26-20, 44-27, 44-29

and the long-term carbon cycle, 25-9–25-12, 25-10, 25-11

and the short-term carbon cycle, 25-1–25-6, 25-2

Atomic mass, 2-2

Atoms, 2-1–2-4, 2-2

components of, 2-1–2-3

energy levels of, 2-2, 2-3–2-4, 2-4

orbitals of, 2-2, 2-3

ATP. See Adenosine triphosphate (ATP)

ATP synthase, 7-12, 7-12–7-13

Atrioventricular (AV) nodes, 39-20, 39-21

Atrioventricular (AV) valves, 39-19, 39-20

Atrium, 39-18, 39-18

Auditory cortex, 36-10

Australopithecus afarensis [hominin], 24-4, 24-5, 24-5, 24-6

Autocrine signaling, 9-3, 9-4–9-5, 38-17

Autoimmune diseases, 43-16

Autonomic nervous system, 35-16–35-17, 35-17

Autosomes, 17-2

Autotrophs, 6-2, 6-2

Auxin, 31-7t, 31-8

and branching, 31-10

and phototropism, 31-17–31-18

and root development, 31-14–31-15

and stem development, 31-8, 31-8–31-9

Avery, Oswald, 3-2–3-3, 3-4

Avirulent pathogens, 32-3

AVR proteins, 32-4, 32-6

Axial skeletons, 37-15, 37-15

Axillary buds, 31-5–31-6, 31-6

and branching, 31-10, 31-10

Axon hillocks, 35-4, 35-5

Axons, 34-5, 35-4, 35-5

Azolla [fern], 33-10, 33-10–33-11

B cells (B lymphocytes), 43-3, 43-7

antibody production in, 43-7–43-9, 43-8

and genomic rearrangement, 43-10–43-13

Bacillus amyloliquefaciens [bacterium], 12-14

Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) [bacterium], C6-4, 32-18, 32-18

Bacteria, 1-12, 26-1. See also Archaea; Eukarya; specific bacterium

anoxygenic, 26-7, 26-7

asexual reproduction in, 42-2, 42-2

cells of, 26-1–26-2, 26-2

as cellular organisms, 1-9

chemical composition of, 1-6

as consumers, 25-12, 25-12

cyano-, 8-3, 8-3, 26-15–26-16, 26-16

and digestion, 40-20–40-21

diversity of, 26-12–26-16, 26-16

evolutionary history of, 26-20, 26-20–26-23

extremophile, C1-2–C1-3

and fermentation, 26-8

gene regulation in, 19-10–19-17

genomes of, 13-8–13-9, 13-11, 13-11, 13-13

gram-positive, 26-15, 26-15

infections by, 43-18, 43-18

and the long-term carbon cycle, 25-7

and the nitrogen cycle, 26-10–26-12, 26-11

and nitrogen fixation, 29-17, 29-17–29-18

pathogenic, C5-2

photosynthetic, 26-7, 26-7–26-8, 26-8, 26-15–26-16

phylogenetic tree for, 26-12, 26-14, 26-14, 26-15

as prokaryotes, 1-11

proteo-, 26-15, 26-15

replication of chromosomes of, 12-8, 12-8

sizes of, 26-2–26-3, 26-3

and the sulfur cycle, 26-10, 26-10

symbiotic, C5-2–C5-4, C5-3, 27-9, 27-9

transcription in, 3-12–3-13

Visual Synthesis of history of, 44-30

Bacteriochlorophyll, 26-7, 26-8

Bacteriophages, 13-17, 13-17–13-18, 19-15

infection by, 19-15–19-17, 19-16, 19-17

Balance, 36-6–36-8, 36-7

Balancing selection, 21-10

Ball-and-socket joints, 37-17–37-18, 37-18

Baltimore, David, 13-16

Baltimore system, 13-16–13-17, 13-17

Bamboo, 33-17

Bananas

agriculture of, C6-2

diseases of, 32-5

Bands, 13-14, 13-14

Banksia [eudicot], 33-20

Bark. See Cork cambium

Barnacles, 47-8

Baroreceptors, 41-19

I-4

Basal lamina, 10-3, 10-3, 10-14

as extracellular matrix, 10-18, 10-18

Base exclusion repairs, 14-14–14-15, 14-15

Base pairing, 3-7, 3-7

and protein synthesis, 4-10, 4-10

Base stacking, 3-8, 3-8

Bases, 2-12, 3-4, 3-5

complementary, 2-13, 2-13

Basic amino acids, 4-2, 4-3

Basic solutions, 2-7

Basidiomycetes, 34-14, 34-14, 34-17, 34-17–34-19

life cycle of, 34-18, 34-18

Basilar membranes, 36-8, 36-9

Basolateral membranes, 10-14, 10-15

Basophils, 43-3, 43-4

Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis [fungus], 48-19

Bats

echolocation in, 36-10, 36-10

as pollinators, 30-11

reciprocal altruism in, 45-17–45-18

Bdelloid rotifers, 42-6–42-7

Beaver dams, 47-11, 47-11

Bees

and behavior, 45-6–45-7, 45-7

communication by, 45-15–45-16, 45-16

and evolution of flowers, 30-10–30-11

fossils of, in amber, 47-22

and kin selection, 45-19

and pheromones, 38-17, 38-18

as pollinators, 30-11–30-13

vision of, 45-1

Beetles, 44-17, 45-20

Behavior. See Animal behavior

Behavioral isolation, 22-5

Bell-shaped curves. See Normal distributions

Bennett, J. Claude, 43-10–43-11

Benson, Andrew, 8-8

Bernard, Claude, 35-17

b barrels, 4-15, 4-15

b-galactosidase, 19-12, 19-12–19-13

b-globin proteins. See Hemoglobin

b-oxidation, 7-18, 7-19

b sheets, 4-5–4-6, 4-6

Bilateral symmetry, 44-2–44-3, 44-3

Bilaterians [Bilateria], 44-3

chordates, 44-19–44-21

deuterostomes, 44-18–44-19

ecdysozoans, 44-14–44-17

lophotrochozoans, 44-11–44-14

phylogenetic tree for, 44-5

protostomes, 44-4

Bilayers, 5-2, 5-3. See also Cell membranes

phospholipid, 2-16, 2-17

Bile, 40-17–40-18, 40-18

Binary fission, 11-2, 11-2, 42-2, 42-2

Binding affinity, 9-10–9-11

Biodiversity hotspots [Case 8], C8-1–C8-3, C8-2, C8-3

and biomes, 47-21–47-22

and climate change, 48-7, 48-7–48-10, 48-8

and evolution of coral reefs, 44-29

and habitat loss, 48–13–48-17, 48-16

and island biogeography, 46-15–46-16, 46-16

Biofuels, C5-3–C5-4

Biological clocks, 45-12–45-13

Biological species concept (BSC), 22-2–22-3

application of, 22-3–22-4

complications for, 22-4, 26-14

extensions of, 22-4–22-5

Biologists, 1-1, 48-19–48-20, 48-20

Biology, 1-1

Bioluminescence, C5-4, C5-4, 26-21

Biomass, 25-6

and trophic pyramids, 25-13, 47-15

Biomechanics, 1-1

Biomes, 47-16, 47-17–47-19

distribution of, 47-19

nature of, 47-19, 47-19–47-20, 47-20

number of species in, 47-20–47-22, 47-21

Biomineralization, 25-8, 25-8

Biotrophic pathogens, 32-2–32-3

Biparental inheritance, 17-15

Bipedalism, 24-5, 24-9–24-10, 24-10

Bipolar cells, 36-15, 36-15

Bird song, 45-15, 45-15

Birds, 44-25–44-26. See also specific bird

communication by, 45-14, 45-15, 45-15

evolution of, 23-16, 23-17, 44-26, 44-29

hearts of, 39-19–39-20

intersexual selection in, 45-20–45-21, 45-21

learning by, 45-9

navigation by, 45-11–45-13, 45-13

as pollinators, 30-11

and seed dispersal, 30-16, 30-16

sexual dimorphism in, 45-20, 45-20

Visual Synthesis of history of, 44-31

Birds of paradise, 42-4, 42-5, 45-3

Births

and population size, 46-3, 46-3

rates of, 46-8, 46-8, 46-9

Bissell, Mina, 10-20

Bivalents, 11-8, 11-8

Bivalves, 44-14, 44-14

Bladders, 41-11, 41-11

Blakemore, Richard, 45-11

Blastocysts, 20-2, 20-2

Blastoderm, cellular, 20-5, 20-6

Blastula, 28-11, 28-11, 42-18, 42-19

Blending inheritance, 16-2, 16-2, 16-10

Blood, 39-3. See also Red blood cells; White blood cells

flow of, 39-15, 39-15

pH of, 2-7

Blood plasma, 9-4

Blood pressure

as complex trait, 18-2, 18-3

regulation of, by kidneys, 41-18, 41-19

Blood serum, 9-4

Blood types, 21-4t

and genetic variation, 21-4

and glycoproteins, 5-19

Bohr, Christian, 39-13

Bombyx [moth], 45-2, 45-2

Bonds. See Chemical bonds

Bone marrow, 37-16, 37-17, 37-17

and B cells, 43-7

and white blood cells, 43-3

Bones, 37-17. See also Joints; Skeletons

formation of, 37-16, 37-16–37-17

and movement, 37-1, 37-2

Bonobos, 24-2, 24-3

Bony fish, 44-23, 44-23–44-24

Book lungs, 44-17

Borlaug, Norman, 30-21–30-22, 32-18

Borthwick, H. A., 30-18, 30-20

Bosch, Karl, 29-18

Bottlenecks, 21-13

Bowerbirds, 42-4, 42-5, 45-21

Bowman’s capsule, 41-12, 41-13

Brachydactyly, 16-15, 16-15–16-16

Bracket fungi, 34-17, 34-17

Brain hormone, 38-4, 38-4t, 38-10

Brains, 35-2, 36-17–36-19. See also Animal nervous systems

anatomy of, 36-17, 36-18, 36-18–36-19

and blood–brain barrier, 35-6

versus body size, 24-11, 24-11

and central nervous system, 35-15

and cognition, 36-20, 36-20–36-21, 36-21

evolution of human, 24-5, 24-6, 24-11–24-12

information processing in, 36-17, 36-17–36-18

somatosensory map of, 36-19, 36-19

Brainstem, 36-17, 36-17–36-18

Brakefield, Paul, 28-15

Branching, 31-5–31-6, 31-6

and hormones, 31-10, 31-10, 31-15

BRCA genes. See also Cancer [Case 2]

and breast cancer, C3-2–C3-3, C3-3, 14-4, 15-9

Visual Synthesis of, 20-18–20-19

Breast cancer. See Cancer [Case 2]

Breathing

and smoking, 39-8

through gills, 39-4, 39-4–39-5, 39-5

through lungs, 39-4, 39-6, 39-6–39-7

through tracheae, 39-4, 39-5–39-6

Breeding, 1-12–1-13, 1-13. See also Hybridization

and behaviors, 45-5, 45-5–45-6

and heritability, 18-8

and inheritance, 16-1

Brenner, Sydney, 3-10

Bridges, Calvin B., 17-6–17-7

Bronchi, primary, 39-7, 39-7

Bronchioles, 39-7, 39-8

Bryophytes, 29-1, 29-2, 33-2

convergent evolution in, 33-4

diversity of, 33-2–33-5

fertilization in, 30-4

life cycle of, 30-2–30-4, 30-3

BSC. See Biological species concept (BSC)

Bt. See Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) [bacterium]

Buccal cavity, 40-15

Buchnera aphidicola [bacterium], C5-4, 47-7, 47-7

Bud scales, 31-4–31-5, 31-5

and winterizing, 31-20

Budding, 42-2, 42-2–42-3

Bulbourethral gland, 42-10, 42-11

Bulk flow, 39-2–39-3

Bulk transport, 28-5, 28-5–28-6, 28-10

Bundle sheaths, 29-7, 29-7–29-8

Burgess Shale, 23-13, 23-13, 44-28

Bursa of Fabricius, 43-7, 43-7

Bushbabies, 24-1, 24-2

Butler, Joyce, 24-17

I-5

Butterflies

and biological species concept, 22-2, 22-3

and color patterns in, 28-15, 28-15

estimating population sizes of, 46-7, 46-7

and evolution of flowers, 30-10–30-11

life cycle of, 46-9, 46-9

metamorphosis of, 44-17, 44-17

plant defenses against, 32-8, 32-8–32-9

as pollinators, 30-11

C₃ plants, 29-7

C₄ plants, 29-7, 29-7–29-8, 29-8

C-value paradox, 13-9

Cactus, beavertail [Opuntia basilaris], 33-20

Cadherens, 10-12, 10-13

and multicellularity, 28-6–28-7

Caenorhabditis elegans [nematode]

developmental cell signaling in, 20-16, 20-16, 20-17

dosage compensation in, 19-4

fungal infections in, 34-5, 34-5

Caesarian sections, 42-22

Calcitonin, 38-9t, 38-15

Calcium

and heartbeat, 39-20

and muscle contraction, 37-6–37-7, 37-7

Calcium carbonate

and the long-term carbon cycle, 25-7, 25-7–25-8, 25-9

and ocean acidification, 48-8–48-9, 48-9

sources of, 27-22

Calmette, Albert, 43-18

Calmodulin, 37-7

Calvatia gigantea [fungus], 34-17

Calvin, Melvin, 8-7–8-8

Calvin cycle, 8-2, 8-3, 8-6–8-9

ATP in, 8-7

in C₄ plants, 29-7

in CAM plants, 29-6

and carbohydrate storage, 8-7–8-9, 8-9

NADPH in, 8-6–8-7

Visual Synthesis of, 8-20

CAM. See Crassulacean acid metabolism (CAM)

Cambium. See Cork cambium; Vascular cambium

Cambrian explosion, 44-27–44-28, 44-28

Camouflage

and melanophores, 10-9, 10-9

cAMP. See Cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP)

Camponotus leonardi [ant], 34-16

Cancer [Case 2], C2-1–C2-3, C2-2, 11-18

and cell-signaling errors, 9-15

and CpG island methylation, 19-2

diagnosis of, 10-5–10-6

hallmarks of, 11-21

and incomplete penetrance, 16-17

and metastasis, 10-18, 10-19

and mutations, 11-18, 11-20, 11-20–11-21, 14-15

and oncogenes, 11-18

and proto-oncogenes, 11-18, 11-20

risk factors for, 14-4–14-5

and somatic mutations, 14-3–14-5, 14-4

and tumor suppressors, 11-20, 11-20–11-21

and viruses, C2-1–C2-3, C2-2, 11-18, 11-18

Visual Synthesis of, 20-18–20-19

Candida albicans [yeast], 34-3, 34-4

Canines [teeth], 40-14, 40-14

Cann, Rebecca, 24-6–24-8, 24-13

Cannon, Walter, 35-17

Capacitation, 42-17

Capillaries, 39-14, 39-15

pulmonary, 39-7, 39-8

Carbohydrates, 2-11, 2-13–2-15, 2-14

in cell membranes, 5-1

complex, 2-14

storage of, 7-17, 7-17, 8-7–8-9, 8-9

Carbon, 2-9–2-11

atomic properties of, 2-2, 2-2–2-4, 2-4

covalent bonding in, 2-9, 2-9

and organic molecules, 2-9–2-11, 2-10

and radiometric dating, 23-15, 23-15

Carbon cycle, 25-1

and ecology, 25-12, 25-12–25-14, 25-13, 25-14

and evolution, 25-13–25-15

and fungi, 34-3

history of, 26-20–26-21

and human activities, 25-1, 25-3–25-4, 48-3–48-11

long-term, 25-6–25-7, 25-6–25-12, 25-9

and prokaryotes, 26-6–26-9

short-term, 25-1–25-6, 25-2

Carbon dioxide. See also Atmosphere; Carbon cycle

and Calvin cycle, 8-6, 8-6

and cellular respiration, 7-9

and gas exchange, 39-1–39-3, 39-3

as greenhouse gas, 48-4, 48-4

history of atmospheric, 25-3, 25-3, 25-9–25-12, 25-10, 25-11, 48-8

and photosynthetic efficiency, 8-19

sources and sinks of, 25-5, 25-5–25-6

Carbonates. See Calcium carbonate

Carbonyl ends, 4-4, 4-4

Carbonyl groups, 4-3

Carboxyl groups, 2-11, 2-11, 4-2, 4-2

Carboxylation, 8-6, 8-6

Cardiac cycle, 39-20, 39-20

Cardiac muscle, 37-2, 37-2, 39-20

Cardiac output (CO), 39-15, 39-21–39-22

Cardinals, 45-20

Caron, Joan, 10-20

Carotenoids, 8-9

Carotid bodies, 39-9, 39-9

Carpels, 30-9, 30-10

Carrier proteins, 5-5, 5-5

Carroll, Lewis, 42-5, 48-14

Carrying capacity (K), 46-5, 46-5–46-6

Visual Synthesis of, 48-12–48-13

Carsonella rudii [bacterium], C1-2

Cartilage, 37-13, 37-14

transformation of, into bone, 37-17

Cartilaginous fish, 44-23, 44-23

Case 1. See Life, origin of [Case 1]

Case 2. See Cancer [Case 2]

Case 3. See Genome, personal [Case 3]

Case 4. See Malaria [Case 4]

Case 5. See Microbiomes [Case 5]

Case 6. See Agriculture [Case 6]

Case 7. See Predation [Case 7]

Case 8. See Biodiversity hotspots [Case 8]

Casparian strips, 29-15, 29-16, 31-14, 31-14

Catabolism, 6-3, 6-3, 40-3

and entropy, 6-6, 6-7–6-8, 6-8

Catalysts, 2-11, 6-10. See also Enzymes

Caterpillars. See Butterflies; Moths

Cats

cloned, 20-4, 20-4–20-5

skeletons of, 37-15

X-inactivation in, 19-4, 19-5, 20-4, 20-4–20-5

Cattle, microbiomes in, C5-3

Caulerpa [alga], 28-2, 28-2

Causation, 25-4

Cavitation, 29-12, 29-12

in conifers, 33-14

CCK. See Cholecystokinin (CCK)

Cecum, 40-22, 40-22

Celera Genomics, 13-2–13-3

Cell adhesion, 10-11–10-15, 10-14

and adherens junctions, 10-12–10-13, 10-14, 10-15t

and tight junctions, 10-13, 10-14, 10-15

Visual Synthesis of, 11-22–11-23

Cell adhesion molecules, 10-11–10-12, 10-12

Cell communication, 9-1–9-3, 9-2, 9-3

classification of, 9-3, 9-3–9-6

during development, 20-15–20-17, 20-17

and fate of signals, 9-8–9-16

and receptors, 9-6–9-8

Visual Synthesis of, 11-22–11-23

Cell cycle, 11-3, 11-3–11-4

regulation of, 11-14, 11-14–11-16, 11-15

Cell division, 11-1–11-4. See also Meiotic cell division; Mitotic cell division

and cell cycle, 11-3, 11-3–11-4

in eukaryotes, 11-3

in prokaryotes, 11-2, 11-2

Visual Synthesis of, 11-22–11-23

Cell-mediated immunity, 43-13–43-16

Cell membranes, 5-1–5-6. See also Plasma membranes

apical, 10-14, 10-15

basolateral, 10-14, 10-15

composition of, 5-2–5-3, 5-3

dynamic nature of, 5-3–5-5

origin of, C1-3

phospholipids in, 2-16

proteins in, 5-5, 5-5–5-6, 5-6

Cell plates, 11-7, 11-7

Cell shape

and cell walls, 5-12, 5-12

and extracellular matrix proteins, 10-18–10-19, 10-19

Cell-surface receptors, 9-6, 9-6–9-7

types of, 9-7, 9-7–9-8

Cell theory, 5-1

Cell walls, 5-8, 26-2

bacterial, 26-2, 26-2

and cell shape, 5-12, 5-12

as extracellular matrix, 10-15–10-16, 10-16

I-6

Cells, 1-8–1-12. See also B cells (B lymphocytes); Egg cells; Germ cells; Sperm cells; T cells (T lymphocytes)

amacrine, 36-15, 36-15

anchor, 20-16, 20-16

antigen-presenting, 43-15, 43-15

bipolar, 36-15, 36-15

chloride, 41-5, 41-5

coenocytic, 27-12, 28-2, 28-2

companion, 29-13, 29-13

cone, 36-14, 36-14, 36-15

dendritic, 43-3, 43-4–43-5, 43-5

discovery of, 5-1, 5-2

effector, 43-9, 43-10

endomembrane system of, 5-15–5-22, 5-16

eukaryotic, 27-1–27-4, 27-2

follicle, 42-13, 42-14

ganglion, 36-15, 36-15

glial, 35-6

guard, 29-5, 29-5

hair, 36-6, 36-8, 36-8–36-10, 36-9

horizontal, 36-15, 36-15

host, 13-15

induced pluripotent, 20-5

information archives in, 1-10–1-11, 1-11

internal organization of, 5-12–5-15, 5-13, 5-14–5-15

Leydig, 42-13

liver, 10-1, 10-2, 11-4

mast, 43-3, 43-4–43-5, 43-5

memory, 43-3, 43-9, 43-10

metabolism in, 1-12

multinucleated, 37-3, 37-3

multipotent, 20-2

natural killer, 43-3, 43-4

nerve, 1-10

neurosecretory, 38-13, 38-13

origin of, C1-2–C1-4, 27-7–27-9, 27-8

pacemaker, 39-20, 39-21

parenchyma, 29-8, 29-9

plasma, 43-3, 43-9, 43-10

plasma membranes in, 1-11, 1-11–1-12

pluripotent, 20-2

procambial, 31-8, 31-9

prokaryotic, 26-1–26-2, 26-2

pyramidal, 35-5, 35-5–35-6

red blood, 5-11, 5-11, 10-1, 10-2, 21-10, 21-11

responding, 9-2, 9-2

rod, 36-14, 36-14, 36-15

Schwann, 35-6, 35-6

Sertoli, 42-13

signaling versus responding, 9-2, 9-2

sizes of, 1-10, 1-10

stem, 12-9, 20-2–20-5, 43-3, 43-3

totipotent, 20-2, 31-1

white blood, 43-3, 43-3

Cellular blastoderm, 20-5, 20-6

Cellular junctions, 10-2, 10-11

adherens, 10-12–10-13, 10-14, 10-15t

tight, 10-13, 10-14, 10-15, 40-19

Cellular movement, 10-8–10-11

and actin polymerization, 10-10–10-11, 10-11

and cilia or flagella, 10-10, 10-10

and motor proteins, 10-8, 10-8–10-9, 10-9

Cellular respiration, 7-1–7-5

anaerobic, 7-16

and the carbon cycle, 25-2, 25-2, 25-14

evolution of, 7-16, 7-16–7-17

flow of energy in, 7-14, 7-14

regulation of, 7-19, 7-19–7-20

stages of, 7-2, 7-2

Visual Synthesis of, 8-20–8-21

Cellulase, 40-21

Cellulose

and biofuels, C5-3–C5-4

in cell walls, 5-12

Centipedes, 44-15, 44-16

Central dogma of molecular biology, 1-10, 1-11, 3-4, 3-4, 4-8, 4-8

Central nervous system (CNS), 35-15, 35-15–35-16

Centromeres, 11-4, 11-5, 14-11

and mitosis, 11-6, 11-6

mutations in, 14-11

Centrosomes, 10-4, 11-5, 11-6

Cephalization, 35-4

Cephalochordates, 44-19, 44-20, 44-21

Cephalopods, 44-13, 44-13–44-14

Cerebellum, 36-17, 36-17–36-18

Cerebral cortex, 36-17, 36-17

Cerebrum, 36-17, 36-18

Cervix, 42-12, 42-12

and childbirth, 42-22

Channel proteins, 5-5, 5-5

Chaparral biome, 47-18, 47-18

Chaperones, 4-8, 19-10

Chara [alga], 30-2, 30-2

Character states, 23-5

Characters, 23-5, 23-5–23-6, 44-2

Chargaff, Erwin, 3-9

Chase, Martha, 3-3

Checkpoints, 11-17, 11-17

Cheetahs, 1-9

muscles of, 37-2, 37-12, 37-19

as predators, 35-1, 35-2

Chelicerates, 44-15, 44-17

Chemautotrophs, 26-9, 26-9

and nitrogen fixation, 26-11–26-12

Chemical bonds, 2-4, 2-4–2-7. See also van der Waals forces

covalent, 2-4, 2-4–2-5

double, 2-10, 2-10, 2-15

glycosidic, 2-14, 2-14–2-15

hydrogen, 2-5, 2-5–2-6

ionic, 2-6, 2-6

peptide, 2-11, 2-12, 4-3–4-4, 4-4

phosphodiester, 2-13, 2-13

polar covalent, 2-5, 2-5

Chemical energy, 6-4

stored in reduced molecules, 7-4, 7-5

Chemical reactions, 2-6–2-7, 2-7, 6-6, 6-6–6-10

coupled, 6-9, 6-9–6-10

and enzymes, 6-10–6-12

and molecular interactions, 6-6–6-7

oxidation–reduction, 7-2–7-4, 7-3

and thermodynamics, 6-7, 6-7–6-8

Chemistry, 1-5–1-8

Chemoreceptors, 36-2, 36-3

Chemotrophs, 6-2, 6-2

Chengjiang fossils, 44-28

Chiasmata, 11-8, 11-8–11-9, 11-9

Chickens

epistasis in, 16-14, 16-14

genetically modified, 12-19, 12-19

Childbirth, 42-22, 42-22

and positive feedback, 38-6–38-7

Chimpanzees, 24-2, 24-3

culture in, 24-16, 24-17

and human origins, 24-6, 24-6–24-7, 24-7, 24-12, 24-12

metabolism of, 40-6

Chitin, 34-2, 37-15, 44-15

in cell walls, 5-12, 34-2

and pathogens, 32-4

Chlamydomonas reinhardtii [alga], 27-15

life cycle of, 27-3, 28-9

and photosynthesis, 27-14

Chlorella [alga]

and Calvin cycle, 8-7–8-8

and chlorophyll, 8-11

Chloride cells, 41-5, 41-5

Chlorophyll, 5-23, 5-23

absorption of light energy by, 8-9–8-10, 8-10

antenna, 8-10, 8-11

versus bacteriochlorophyll, 26-7, 26-8

Chlorophyll II, 8-9

Chloroplast genomes, 13-14–13-15

Chloroplasts, 5-14, 5-15, 5-22, 5-23, 5-23

binary fusion in, 11-2

and cellular metabolism, 27-2, 27-2

chromosomes of, 12-8

and endosymbiosis, 27-4–27-6, 27-5, 27-6

inheritance in, 17-15

origin of, C5-4, 5-22, 7-2, 10-7–10-8, 13-14–13-15

structure of, 8-5, 8-5

Choanocytes, 44-5, 44-5–44-6

Choanoflagellates, 27-10–27-11, 27-11

and cell adhesion, 28-6–28-7, 28-7

Chocolate trees, 47-1, 47-3, 47-3, 47-6

Cholecystokinin (CCK), 38-8, 38-10t, 40-18, 40-18

Cholesterol, 5-4, 38-7

in cell membranes, 5-4, 5-5

levels of, in humans, 18-11, 18-11–18-12

and RNA editing, 19-7, 19-7

and steroid hormones, 38-7

structure of, 2-16, 2-16

Chomsky, Noam, 24-17

Chondrichthyes, 44-23, 44-23

Chondroblasts, 37-16

Chordates [Chordata], 44-18, 44-19–44-21

and vertebrates, 44-21, 44-21

Chorion, 42-9, 42-9

Chromatin, 3-10, 3-10, 13-12, 19-2

and gene regulation, 19-2

Chromatin remodeling, 19-2–19-3

and vernalization, 30-18

Chromatography, 8-8

Chromatotropins, 38-4t

Chromosome condensation, 13-12, 13-13

Chromosomes, 3-9–3-10. See also Sex chromosomes

and gene regulation, 19-3–19-4, 19-5

genes as components in, 17-6, 17-6–17-7

mutations in, 14-11, 14-11–14-13, 14-13

and organization of genomes, 13-13–13-14, 13-14

replication of, 12-8–12-9, 12-9, 12-10

structure of, 11-4, 11-4–11-5

variation in, 15-11–15-16, 15-12, 15-15, 15-16

Chroococcus [cyanobacterium], 26-16

I-7

Chrysanthemums, polyploidy in, 22-14

Chytrids, 34-12–34-13, 34-13

Chytriomyces hyalinus [fungus], 34-13

Cichlid fish, 38-18, 38-18

Cilia, 10-4, 10-4, 43-2

as propulsion devices, 10-10, 10-10

Circadian clocks, 45-12–45-13

in angiosperms, 30-18

Circular muscles, 40-21, 40-21

Circulation, 39-3

Circulatory systems. See Animal circulatory systems; Vascular systems

Cis-regulatory elements, 20-13

Cisternae, 5-18, 5-18

Citric acid cycle, 7-2, 7-2, 7-8–7-10, 7-9, 40-3

Visual Synthesis of, 8-21

Cladistics, 23-6

Clams, 44-14, 44-14

exoskeleton of, 37-14, 37-14

Class I genes [MHC], 43-15

Class II genes [MHC], 43-15

Class III genes [MHC], 43-15

Class switching, 43-9

Classes, 23-4, 23-5

Classical conditioning, 45-9

Classification. See Taxonomy

Cleavage, 42-17, 42-17–42-18, 42-18

Visual Synthesis of, 42-20

Clements, Frederic, 47-9, 47-12

Climate change

and climate models, 48-5

and communities, 48-5–48-10, 48-6, 48-7, 48-8, 48-9

mitigating, 48-10, 48-10–48-11

Climax communities, 47-12, 47-13

Clitoris, 42-13, 42-13

Cloacae, 41-11, 41-11

Clonal selection, 43-9, 43-9–43-10

and immunological memory, 43-10, 43-10

Clones, 20-4, 20-4–20-5, 42-2

Closed circulatory systems, -39-13–39-14, 39-14

Clostridium difficile [bacterium], C5-2

Clostridium tetani [bacterium], 37-11, 43-2

Cnidarians [Cnidaria], 44-7, 44-7–44-8, 44-8

hydrostatic skeletons of, 37-13, 37-13–37-14

phylogenetic tree for, 44-6

Visual Synthesis of history of, 44-31

CNS. See Central nervous system (CNS)

CNV. See Copy-number variation (CNV)

CO. See Cardiac output (CO)

Co-speciation, 22-11, 22-11

Coal, origin of, 8-3

Coccolithophorids, 27-22, 27-22

and ocean acidification, 48-8–48-9, 48-9

Cochlea, 36-7, 36-8, 36-9

Cochlear ducts, 36-8, 36-9

Cockroaches, 1-18

Codium [alga], 28-2, 28-2

Codons, 4-9, 4-9

Coelacanths, 44-24, 44-24–44-25

Coelomates, 44-3, 44-3

Coelum, 44-3, 44-3

Coenocytic cells, 27-12, 28-2, 28-2

Coenzyme Q (CoQ), 7-11, 7-12

Coevolution, 26-21

of humans and parasites, C4-2–C4-4, C4-3, 22-11–22-12

and mutualisms, 47-6

and plant defenses, 32-16–32-17

of prokaryotes and eukaryotes, 26-21–26-23

Cofactors, 6-15

Cognition, 1-1, 36-20, 36-20–36-21, 36-21

Cohesion, and surface tension, 2-8

Cohorts, 46-10

Coleochaete [alga], 30-2, 30-2

Collagen, 10-17, 10-17, 37-15, 37-16, 39-16

Collecting ducts, 41-11, 41-11

Colon, 40-20

Colon cancer. See Cancer [Case 2]

Colonization of land, 44-28–44-29

and convergent evolution, 44-24

and reproduction, 42-7, 42-7–42-9

Color blindness

as phenotype, 15-2

and X-linked inheritance, 17-7, 17-7

Columbines [Aquilegia], 20-15, 30-12, 30-13

Comb-jellies, 44-8–44-9, 44-9

Combinatorial control, 19-6, 20-13–20-15, 20-14, 20-15

Commensalism, 47-8, 47-8–47-9, 47-8t

Communication, 45-13–45-16, 45-14

sensitive periods for learning, 45-15, 45-15

Communities, 47-9–47-13

and climate change, 48-5–48-10, 48-6, 48-7, 48-8, 48-9

climax, 47-12, 47-13

and disturbances, 47-11–47-12

keystone species of, 47-10–47-11, 47-11

and predator–prey interactions, 47-9–47-10, 47-10

succession in, 47-12, 47-12–47-13

and trophic pyramids, 25-13

Visual Synthesis of, 48-12–48-13

Compact bone, 37-17, 37-17

Companion cells, 29-13, 29-13

Comparative genomics, 13-6

Compasses, sun, 45-12–45-13, 45-16

Competition, 47-4, 47-8t

intraspecific versus interspecific, 46-5

and niche size, 47-3

and predation, 47-5, 47-5

for space, 47-5

Competitive exclusion, 47-4–47-5

and communities, 47-9

Competitive inhibitors, 6-14, 6-14

Complement system, 43-6, 43-6–43-7

Complementary bases, 2-13, 2-13, 3-7

and base pairing, 3-7, 3-7

and proofreading, 12-7

Complex carbohydrates, 2-14

Complex multicellularity, 28-1, 28-3, 28-3–28-4

construction of, 28-6–28-10

evolution of, 28-12, 28-12–28-16, 28-13, 28-14

plants versus animals, 28-10–28-12

Complex traits, 18-1, 18-2

and diseases, 18-10–18-13, 18-11

influences of heredity and environment on, 18-2–18-3, 18-3

multiple genes affecting, 18-3–18-4, 18-4

and resemblance among relatives, 18-6–18-8

and twin studies, 18-8–18-10, 18-9t, 18-10

Compound eyes, 36-12, 36-12

Computers

and climate models, 48-5

and genome sequencing, 13-2, 13-3

and phylogenetic trees, 23-8

Concordances, 18-9–18-10, 18-9t

Conditioning, 45-9

Cone cells, 36-14, 36-14, 36-15

Cones, 33-13, 33-13

ovule versus pollen, 30-6, 30-7

Conformational changes

and muscle contraction, 10-8, 10-8–10-9

and receptor activation, 9-6, 9-8, 9-14

Conifers, 33-13, 33-13–33-14

Conjugation [DNA transfer], 26-4, 26-4

Connective tissue, 10-2, 10-3, 10-3

and endoskeletons, 37-15

extracellular matrix in, 10-17, 10-17

Connell, Joseph, 32-16, 47-12

Consciousness

non-human, 24-18

Conserved sequences, 13-6

Constant (C) regions, 43-8, 43-8

Constitutive defenses, 32-13

Constitutive phenotypes, 19-14, 19-15

Consumers, 25-12, 25-12, 47-14, 47-14

Continuous traits, 21-9

Contraception

female, 42-14

male, 42-11

Contractile rings, 11-7, 11-7

Contractile vacuoles, 5-12

Convergent evolution

and analogous characters, 23-6

and biomes, 47-20, 47-20

in bryophytes, 33-4

and colonization of land, 44-24

in fungi, 34-2

of kidneys, 41-12

of single-lens eyes, 36-12–36-13, 36-13

of suspension filter feeding, 40-12

of uric-acid production, 41-8

Copy-number variation (CNV), 15-10, 15-10–15-11, 15-11

CoQ. See Coenzyme Q (CoQ)

Coral reefs. See Biodiversity hotspots [Case 8]

Corals, 44-7–44-8, 44-8

asexual reproduction of, 42-2, 42-3

bleaching of, 48-8, 48-8

and competition for space, 47-4

symbiosis in, 27-5, 27-6

Corey, Robert, 4-5, 4-6

Cork, 31-12, 31-12

and discovery of cells, 5-1, 5-2

Cork cambium, 31-11, 31-11

and bark, 31-12, 31-12

and innate immunity, 43-2, 43-2

Cormorants, 47-4

Corn. See Zea mays [corn]

Corona radiata, 42-16, 42-17

Corpus luteum, 42-14, 42-14, 42-18

Correlation, 25-4

Cortex [brain], 36-18, 36-18

I-8

Cortex [kidney], 41-12, 41-13

Cortex [root], 29-15, 29-15, 31-14, 31-14

Cortex [stem], 31-9, 31-9, 31-11

Cortisol, 38-7, 38-8, 38-9t, 38-10, 38-14

Costus [monocot], 33-17

Cotyledons, 30-15

and monocots, 33-17

Countercurrent exchange, 39-5, 39-5, 41-15

Countercurrent multiplier, 41-15, 41-15–41-16

Courtship displays, 45-2, 45-3

Covalent bonds, 2-4, 2-4–2-5

CpG islands, 19-2, 19-3

Crabs, 44-15

bilateral symmetry of, 44-3

mouthparts of, 44-16

Cranes, 44-21

Cranial nerves, 35-15, 35-16

Craniates, 44-19. See also Vertebrates [Vertebrata]

Crassulacean acid metabolism (CAM), 29-6, 29-6–29-7

Crenarchaeota, 26-17, 26-17, 26-18, 26-18

Cretaceous extinction, 23-18, 23-19

Crick, Francis H. C.

and DNA replication, 12-2, 12-10

and DNA structure, 3-4, 3-6, 3-8, 3-9, 13-2

Crisscross inheritance, 17-4, 17-4–17-5

Cro-Magnons, 24-8, 24-8–24-9. See also Humans

Crocodilians, 44-25

Crop, 40-14

and digestion, 40-16

Crops. See Agriculture [Case 6]

Cross-bridge cycles, 37-5, 37-5

Cross-bridges, 37-5

and muscle force, 37-8–37-8

Crosscurrent flow, 39-8, 39-9

Crossing. See Hybridization

Crossover, 11-8, 11-8–11-9, 11-9, 17-10

and linked genes, 17-10, 17-10

Crustaceans, 44-15, 44-17

Ctenophores [Ctenophora], 44-8–44-9, 44-9

phylogenetic tree for, 44-11

Culture, 24-15–24-17, 24-16

non-human, 24-16–24-17, 24-17

Cuticle [arthropod], 37-14, 37-15

Cuticle [leaf], 29-3, 29-4–29-5

and innate immunity, 43-2, 43-2

Cuttlefish, 44-13

Cyanobacteria, 8-3, 8-3, 26-15–26-16, 26-16

and eutrophication, 48-11

and origin of chloroplasts, 27-4–27-6, 27-5, 27-6

Cyathea dealbata [fern], 33-10

Cycads, 33-11–33-12, 33-12

Cycas circinalis [cycad], 33-12

Cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP), 9-9–9-11

and regulation of lactose operons, 19-14–19-15, 19-16

Cyclic electron transport, 8-14, 8-14–8-15

Cyclin-dependent kinases (CDK), 11-14, 11-15–11-16

and regulation of cell cycle, 11-16, 11-16, 11-17

Cyclins, 11-14, 11-15

Cysteine, 4-2, 4-3

Cysts, 42-4, 42-4

Cytochrome b₆f complexes, 8-12, 8-13, 8-14, 8-14

in thylakoid membranes, 8-15, 8-15

Cytochrome c, 7-11, 7-12

Cytokines, 43-4

and inflammation, 43-5, 43-5

Cytokinesis, 11-2, 11-7, 11-7

Cytokinins, 31-7t, 31-8, 31-10

Cytoplasm, 1-11, 5-14–5-15, 5-15

and meiosis, 11-11, 11-13, 11-13

Cytosine (C), 2-12, 2-12, 3-5, 3-5

pairing of, 3-7

Cytoskeleton, 5-14, 5-14–5-15, 10-2, 10-3–10-8, 27-1, 27-2

evolution of, 10-7–10-8

Cytosol, 5-14–5-15, 5-15

Cytotoxic T cells, 43-3, 43-13, 43-13t, 43-14

activation of, 43-14–43-15, 43-15

Daeschler, Edward, 23-20

Daphnia [crustacean], 42-4, 42-4

Darwin, Charles, 21-8

and altruism, 45-16–45-17

and artificial selection, 18-8, 48-14

and evolution, 1-14, 2-19, 21-1, 23-1

and fossils, 23-14

and human evolution, 24-1, 24-4, 24-14, 24-18

and inheritance, 16-2, 16-10

and natural selection, 1-12, 21-8–21-9

and phototropism, 31-17

and plants, 33-1

and the scientific method, 1-2

and sexual selection, 21-13, 24-14, 45-20

and species, 22-1, 22-15

and struggle for existence, 46-1, 46-4, 47-4

and swim bladders, 44-24

and vestigial structures, 40-23

Darwin, Francis, 31-17

Dating, radiometric, 23-15, 23-15

Daughter cells. See Cell division

Daughter strands, 12-2, 12-2

Dawkins, Marion, 36-21

Dawsonia superba [moss], 33-4

Day-neutral plants, 30-17

Dead zones, 48-11, 48-11–48-14

Deaths

and population size, 46-3, 46-3

rates of, 46-8, 46-8, 46-9

Deceit, 45-14–45-15

Deciduous forest biome, 47-18, 47-18

Decomposers, 25-12, 25-12

fungi as, 34-1, 34-3–34-4, 34-4

Defecation, 40-15

Defenses. See also Animal immune systems; Plant defenses

constitutive versus inducible, 32-13

Delayed hypersensitivity reactions, 43-14

Deleterious mutations, 21-2–21-3

Deletion mutations, 14-11, 14-11–14-12

Demography, 46-9

Denaturation, PCR, 12-11, 12-12

Dendrites, 34-5, 35-4, 35-5

Dendritic cells, 43-3, 43-4

and inflammation, 43-5, 43-5

Dendrochronology, 23-15

Denitrification, 26-11, 26-11

Density, population, 46-2, 46-2

distribution of, 46-3, 46-3

Density-dependent factors, 46-6, 46-6

Density-dependent mortality, 32-16–32-17, 32-17

Density-independent factors, 46-6, 46-6

Deoxynucleotides, 12-16, 12-16

Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), 1-10–1-11, 1-11, 2-12, 3-1. See also Replication of DNA

composition of, 2-12, 3-4–3-5, 3-5

damage to, 14-13, 14-13–14-14

functions of, 3-2–3-4

and gene regulation, 19-2–19-3, 19-3

“junk,” 27-3

noncoding, 13-4, 13-10–13-11, 13-11, 14-7, 14-13

recombinant, 12-17–12-20, 12-18

recombination of, during meiosis, 11-8–11-9, 11-9

repair of, 14-14, 14-14–14-15, 14-15

repetitive, 13-10

structure of, 2-13, 2-13, 3-6, 3-6–3-10, 3-7, 3-8

Deoxyribose, 3-4, 3-4

Dephosphorylation, 9-8

Depolarization, 35-8

Depression, 18-2, 18-3

Dermis [plants], 10-2–10-3, 10-3

Dermis [skin], 43-2, 43-3

Descartes, René, 24-18

Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex [Darwin], The, 21-13, 24-1, 45-20, 45-20

Desert biome, 47-18, 47-18, 47-20

Desert crust, photosynthesis in, 8-3, 8-4

Desiccation, 29-1

Desiccation tolerance, 29-2, 29-2

and leaves, 29-4, 29-4–29-6, 29-5

and lichens, 34-7

Desmosomes, 10-5, 10-12–10-13, 10-14, 10-15t

Deuterostomes [Deuterostomia], 44-4, 44-18, 44-18–44-19, 44-19

phylogenetic tree for, 44-18

Development, 20-1, 42-15–42-22

of bones, 37-16, 37-16–37-17

of the brain, 36-17, 36-17

and the cell cycle, 11-4, 11-14

and cell migration, 10-18

and cell signaling, 9-4, 9-11–9-12, 20-15–20-17, 20-17

conservation of genes involved with, 24-12, 24-12

and endocrine system, 38-2, 38-2–38-4, 38-3, 38-5

and gene dosage, 14-11

genetic programming of, 20-1–20-5

hierarchical control of, 20-5–20-11

in humans, 42-17–42-22, 42-19, 42-20–42-21

and multicellularity, 28-8–28-10, 28-15–28-16

and neoteny, 24-10–24-11

and spontaneous abortions, 15-15

and taxonomy, 44-4, 44-4

and telomerase, 12-9

Visual Synthesis of, 42-20–42-21

Diabetes mellitus, 38-6. See also Diseases and abnormalities

Diaphragm, 39-6, 39-6–39-7, 39-7

Diaphysis, 37-17, 37-17

I-9

Diastole, 39-20, 39-20

Diatoms, 25-8, 25-8, 27-16, 27-17

history of, 27-22

life cycle of, 27-3–27-4

Dickinsonia [Ediacaran fossil], 44-27, 44-27

Dictyophora indusiata [fungus], 34-17

Dictyostelium [slime mold], 27-13

Dideoxynucleotides, 12-16, 12-16, 12-17

Diet, 40-10–40-11

Dietary minerals, 40-10–40-11, 40-11

Differentiation, 20-1

and multicellularity, 28-8–28-10

and restriction of cell fates, 20-2–20-5, 20-3

Diffusion, 5-8, 5-8, 26-2, 28-4, 39-2

and bacterial size limits, 26-2–26-3, 26-3

versus bulk transport, 28-4–28-6, 28-5

in capillaries, 39-16

facilitated, 5-8, 5-9

and gas exchange, 39-1–39-3

Digestion, 40-14–40-15, 40-15

intracellular versus extracellular, 40-14

Digestive tract, 40-14–40-15, 40-15

large intestine, 40-20–40-21, 40-21

lining of, 40-21, 40-21

mouth, 40-15, 40-15–40-16

of plant-eaters, 40-21–40-23, 40-22

small intestine, 40-17–40-20, 40-18, 40-19

stomach, 40-16, 40-16–40-17

Dikarya, 34-14, 34-14

Dikaryotic stage, 34-10, 34-10

Dilger, William, 45-6

Dimerization, 9-12, 9-12

Dinoflagellates, 27-16, 27-17, 27-19

history of, 27-22

Dinosaurs

evolution of, 23-16, 23-17, 44-26, 44-29

extinction of, 1-4–1-5, 23-18, 44-29

feathered, 23-11

tracks of, 23-12

Visual Synthesis of history of, 44-31

Diploblastic animals, 44-4, 44-4

Diploidy, 11-5, 27-3

Direct-to-consumer (DTC) tests, C3-3, 16-18, 17-15, 17-16

Directional selection, 21-12, 21-12

Disaccharides, 7-17, 7-18

Discrete traits, 21-9

Diseases and abnormalities. See also Down syndrome; Drugs; Malaria [Case 4]; Medicine; Sickle-cell anemia

albinism, 16-16, 16-16

allergies, 43-9

Alzheimer’s, 16-17

amoebic dysentery, 27-12, 27-12

arthritis, 37-16, 43-16

asthma, 43-9

autoimmune, 43-16

birth anomalies, 18-11, 18-11

brachydactyly, 16-15, 16-15–16-16

caused by prokaryotes, 1-11, 26-22

cholera, 40-20

color blindness, 15-2, 17-7, 17-7

and complex traits, 18-2, 18-3, 18-10–18-13, 18-11

crown gall, 32-7, 32-7–32-8

cystic fibrosis, 14-8–14-9, 14-9, 17-12, 19-10

diabetes, 16-17, 18-2, 18-3, 18-9, 38-6, 43-16

and dialysis, 41-19

and drug resistance, 1-13, 4-18–4-19, 5-13, 48-18

Dutch elm disease, 32-5

emphysema, 15-3, 15-4, 16-17

environmental risk factors for, 14-5

epidermolysis bullosa, 10-5, 10-6

and genetic mapping, 17-11–17-12

genetic risk factors for, 15-3, 15-4, 16-17

hay-fever, 30-12

history of, 1-18

Huntington’s disease, C3-2, C3-3, 17-12, 19-10

immunodeficiency, 43-7

influenza, 13-15, 23-10, 43-17, 43-17

and invasive species, 48-18

Klinefelter syndrome, 15-14, 15-15

lactose intolerance, 15-2, 40-19

malnutrition, 40-11

mitochondrial, 17-15–17-16, 17-16

modeling of, with genetically modified organisms, 12-20

multiple sclerosis, 43-16

muscular dystrophy, 17-12

and nondisjunction, 15-12–15-14, 15-13

obesity, 18-2, 18-3, 18-5, 40-10

osteogenesis imperfecta, 37-16

osteoporosis, 37-17

and personal genomes, 13-4

phenylketonuria (PKU), 16-16–16-17

plague, 1-18, 48-18

rabies, 13-15

smallpox, 13-15, 43-10

tuberculosis, 43-18, 43-18, 48-18, 48-18

Turner syndrome, 15-14, 15-15

ulcers, 40-17

xeroderma pigmentosum, 14-15

yeast infections, 34-3, 34-5

Disorder, and thermodynamics, 1-6–1-7, 1-7

Dispersal, 22-7

and speciation, 22-9, 22-13

Displays, 45-2

advertisement, 45-15, 45-15, 45-20, 45-21

and communication, 45-14

Disruptive selection, 21-11, 21-13, 22-12, 22-13

Distal convoluted tubules, 41-14, 41-14, 41-17

Disturbances, 47-11–47-12

Diuretics, 41-18–41-19

Diversity. See also Genetic variation

of Archaea, 26-16–26-19, 26-18

of Bacteria, 26-12–26-16, 26-16

of bryophytes, 33-2–33-5

of chordates, 44-18, 44-19–44-21

of cnidarians, 44-7, 44-7–44-8, 44-8

of ctenophores, 44-8–44-9, 44-9

of deuterostomes, 44-4, 44-18, 44-18–44-19, 44-19

of ecdysozoans, 44-11, 44-14–44-17

of Eukarya, 27-9–27-20

and evolutionary history, 47-22–47-23

of ferns, 33-9, 33-9–33-10

of flowers, 20-15, 30-9, 30-10–30-12, 30-11

of fungi, 34-12–34-19

of gymnosperms, 33-11, 33-11–33-14

of horsetails, 33-9, 33-9–33-10

of lophotrochozoans, 44-11–44-14

of lycophytes, 33-6–33-7, 33-7

of placozoans, 44-9, 44-9–44-11

of plants, 33-1–33-2, 33-2

of roots, 31-15–31-16, 31-16

of sponges, 44-5, 44-5–44-7

of vertebrates, 44-21–44-27

Visual Synthesis of history of, 44-30–44-31

Diversity gradient, latitudinal, 47-21, 47-21–47-22

Dizygotic twins. See Fraternal (dizygotic) twins

DNA. See Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)

DNA ligase, 12-6, 12-6, 14-14

and DNA repair, 14-14

DNA microarrays, 15-9–15-11, 15-10, 15-11

DNA polymerase, 12-4, 12-7

and PCR, 12-11, 12-12

and proofreading, 12-6, 12-6–12-7, 12-7

DNA replication. See Replication of DNA

DNA sequencing, 12-15–12-17, 12-17

and human origins, 24-3–24-4

measuring genetic variation using, 21-3, 21-4, 21-6

and phylogenetic trees, 23-8–23-9, 23-9

DNA transposable elements (DNA TEs), 13-10, 13-11

DNA typing, 15-6

and multiple alleles, 16-16

and restriction fragment length polymorphism, 15-7, 15-7–15-8

and variable number of tandem repeats, 15-6, 15-6–15-7

Dobzhansky, Theodosius, 1-15, 24-18

Dodder, 32-3

Dodo, 1-18, 1-19

Dogs

breathing of, 39-4

breeding of, 45-5, 45-5

digestive tracts of, 40-15

learning by, 45-9

sensory receptors in, 36-2

Domains, 1-12, 23-4, 23-5. See also Archaea; Bacteria; Eukarya

differences among, 26-5t

phylogenetic tree for, 26-5

Domestication, 1-12–1-13, 1-13. See also Agriculture [Case 6]; Animal husbandry

and centers of origin, 33-20–33-21, 33-21

of corn, 16-1

of horses, 16-1

Dominant traits, 16-4–16-5, 16-5

incomplete, 16-8–16-9, 16-9

and pedigrees, 16-15, 16-15–16-16

Donor DNA, 12-18, 12-18

Dopamine, 38-7

Dormancy, 30-8

germination after, 30-18, 30-20–30-21, 30-21

I-10

Dorsal nerve cords, 44-18

Dosage, 14-11

and gene regulation, 19-3–19-4

Dosage compensation, 19-4

Double bonds, 2-10, 2-10

saturated versus unsaturated, 2-15

Double fertilization, 30-15

Double helices, 2-13, 2-13, 3-1

in DNA, 3-6–3-8, 3-7

Down syndrome, 15-12–15-14, 15-13

Downstream genes, 20-13

Dragonflies, 44-15

Dreyer, William, 43-10–43-11

Drosophila melanogaster [fruit fly]

and Bacteria, 26-21, 26-21

and behavior, 45-6, 45-6

and biological clocks, 45-12

and deletion mutations, 14-11

development of, 20-5–20-11, 20-6, 20-8, 20-9, 20-10

dosage compensation in, 19-4

eye development in, 20-12, 20-12–20-13, 20-13

and genetic maps, 17-11–17-12, 17-12

genetic variation in, 21-1, 21-5, 21-5, 24-12

and genome sequencing, 13-2–13-3, 13-3

and linked genes, 17-9, 17-9–17-11

and X-linked genes, 17-3, 17-3–17-6, 17-5, 17-6

Drugs. See also Diseases and abnormalities; Medicine

and directional selection, 21-12

and genome sequencing, 13-7

from plants, 32-1, 32-10–32-11, 32-10t

resistance to, C4-3–C4-4, 1-13, 4-18–4-19, 5-13, 26-5–26-6, 43-18, 48-18, 48-18–48-19

from trees, 33-13

DTC tests. See Direct-to-consumer (DTC) tests

Duodenum, 40-17, 40-18

Duplication and divergence, 14-12, 14-12

Duplication mutations, 14-11, 14-11–14-12

Dyes, fluorescent, 12-3–12-4, 12-13, 12-16, 12-17, 15-10, 15-10

Dynamic instability, 10-7, 10-7

Dynein, 10-9, 10-9

E (exit) sites, 4-9, 4-9, 4-13

Eardrums, 36-8, 36-9

Ears, 36-7–36-8, 36-8. See also Sound, sense of

Earth

chemical composition of, 1-6, 1-6

early atmosphere of, 7-5, 7-16

and human activities, 1-18

silicate minerals of, 2-11

temperature of, 2-8

Earthworms, 44-12, 44-12

digestive tracts of, 40-15

excretory organs of, 41-9–41-10, 41-10

hydrostatic skeletons of, 37-13, 37-14

Eccles, John, 35-12

Ecdysone, 38-4, 38-4t, 38-10

Ecdysozoans [Ecdysozoa], 44-11, 44-14–44-17

phylogenetic tree for, 44-15

Echinoderms [Echinodermata], 44-18, 44-19, 44-19

Echolocation, 36-10, 36-10

Ecological footprint, 48-2, 48-2

Ecological niches, 22-4

Ecological separation, 22-5–22-6, 22-6

Ecological species concept (ESC), 22-5

Ecological systems, 1-16–1-17

and evolution, 1-17

Ecological Theater and the Evolutionary Play [Hutchinson], The, 1-17

Ecology, 1-16, 46-1. See also Populations

and the carbon cycle, 25-12, 25-12–25-14, 25-13, 25-14

Visual Synthesis of, 48-12–48-13

Ecosystems, 47-13, 47-13–47-16

and food webs, 47-13–47-14, 47-14

and primary production, 47-15–47-16, 47-16

and trophic pyramids, 47-15, 47-15

Ectoderm, 20-2, 20-2, 42-19, 42-19

Ectomycorrhizae, 29-16, 29-17, 34-5, 34-5

Ectotherms, 40-7

Visual Synthesis of, 40-9

Ediacaran fossils, 44-27, 44-27

Edward VII, King of England, 17-8

Effector cells, 43-9, 43-10

Efferent neurons, 35-16

Egg cells

as gametes, 11-1, 27-4

and meiosis, 11-7, 11-13, 11-13

ostrich, 1-10

polarization of, 20-6–20-8, 20-7

Eggs, amniotic, 42-8–42-9, 42-9, 44-25–44-26

Eggshells, 43-2, 43-2

Egrets, 47-4, 47-8, 47-9

Ehrlich, Paul, 32-17, 43-3, 43-6, 43-9, 48-16

Ejaculation, 42-16

Ejaculatory duct, 42-10, 42-10

EKG. See Electrocardiogram (EKG)

Elastin, 10-17, 10-17, 39-16

Electrocardiogram (EKG), 39-21, 39-21

Electrochemical gradients, 5-10, 5-11

and potential energy, 6-4

Electrolytes

and excretion, 41-7–41-12

osmoregulation of, 41-1–41-7

Electromagnetic receptors, 36-10

Electromagnetic spectrum, 8-9, 8-9

Electron acceptors, 7-4

Electron carriers, 7-2, 7-2

generation of, in citric acid cycle, 7-8–7-10, 7-9

and transport of high-energy electrons, 7-4

Electron donors, 7-4, 9-1

Electron transport chain, 7-2, 7-2, 7-10–7-12, 7-11, 40-3. See also Photosynthetic electron transport chain

evolution of, 7-16, 7-16

Visual Synthesis of, 8-21

Electronegativity, 2-5, 2-5

Electrons, 2-1, 2-2. See also Orbitals

energy levels of, 6-4, 6-4

sharing of, 7-3, 7-3

valence, 2-4–2-5, 2-5

Electrophoresis, gel, 12-11, 12-13, 12-13, 12-14

Electroreceptors, 36-4

Elements, 2-1

periodic table of, 2-3, 2-3–2-4

Elena, Santiago, 1-15

Elk, 44-21

Elm trees, 32-5

Elongation factors, 4-13, 4-14

Elongation [of proteins], 4-12–4-14, 4-13

Elongation zones [of stems], 31-3, 31-3–31-4

Elton, Charles, 47-1

Embryonic development. See

Development

Emerson, Robert, 8-10–8-11

Emigration, 46-3, 46-3

Emiliania huxleyi [coccolithophorid], 48-9

Encephalartos transvenosus [cycad], 33-12

Endangered or threatened species

cycads, 33-12

frogs, 48-19, 48-19

rhinoceros, 1-19

Endemic species, 46-15

Endergonic reactions, 6-7, 6-7

Endocrine signaling, 9-3, 9-3–9-4, 38-16, 38-16–38-17

Endocrine systems. See Animal endocrine systems

Endocytosis, 5-16, 5-17, 27-1, 27-2

Endoderm, 20-2, 20-2, 42-19, 42-19

Endodermis, 29-15, 29-15, 31-14, 31-14, 44-7

Endomembrane system, 5-15–5-17, 5-16, 5-16, 27-2, 27-2

components of, 5-17–5-22

Endomycorrhizae, 29-16, 29-17, 34-5

Visual Synthesis of, 33-23

Endophytes, 34-6

Endoplasmic reticulum (ER), 5-14, 5-14–5-15, 5-16, 5-17, 5-17–5-18, 27-2, 27-2

Endoskeletons, 37-13, 37-15, 37-15–37-16

Endosperm, 30-15, 30-15

Endosymbiosis, 5-22, 7-2, 8-4, 10-7–10-8, 27-5

and chloroplasts, 27-4–27-6, 27-5, 27-6

and mitochondria, 27-6–27-7, 27-7

and spread of photosynthesis, 27-16–27-19, 27-19

Endotherms, 40-7

Visual Synthesis of, 40-8

Energetic coupling, 6-9, 6-9

Energy, 6-3–6-5

activation (E_A), 6-10, 6-10

alternative, 48-10, 48-10–48-11

chemical, 6-4, 6-4

kinetic, 6-3, 6-3–6-4

light, 8-9, 8-9–8-10, 8-10

potential, 6-3, 6-3–6-4

solar, 8-3

Energy balance, 40-7, 40-10

Energy harnessing, C1-3. See also Calvin cycle; Citric acid cycle; Metabolism; Photosynthesis

Energy intake, 40-10

Energy levels of atoms, 2-2, 2-3–2-4, 2-4

Energy use [metabolic], 40-10

Enhancers, 3-13, 3-13, 19-6, 19-6

Enterotypes, C5-2

Enthalpy (H), 6-7

Entropy (S), 1-6–1-7, 1-7, 6-6

and chemical reactions, 6-7

Environment, influence of, on complex traits, 18-2–18-5, 18-3. See also Learning; Nurture [behavior]

I-11

Environmental risk factors, 14-5, 18-2

and inheritance patterns, 16-17

and mutagens, 14-14

Environmental variation, 1-13

Enzymes, 2-11, 5-5, 6-10. See also Restriction enzymes

and activation energy, 6-10, 6-10–6-11

allosteric, 6-14–6-15

in cell membranes, 5-5, 5-5

in chemical reactions, 6-11, 6-11–6-12

regulation of, 6-13–6-14

specificity of, 6-12–6-13

Eosinophils, 43-3, 43-4

Ephedra [gnetophyte], 33-14, 33-14

Epidermal growth factor (EGF), 20-16–20-17, 20-17

Epidermis [leaf], 29-3, 29-3–29-6

Epidermis [root], 29-15, 29-15, 31-14, 31-14

Epidermis [skin], 10-2–10-3, 10-3, 43-2, 43-3, 44-7

Visual Synthesis of, 11-22–11-23

Epididymis, 42-10, 42-10, 42-11

Epigenetic changes, 19-2–19-3

Epiglottis, 40-15, 40-16

Epinephrine, 38-7, 38-8, 38-10t, 38-16. See also Adrenaline

Epiphysis, 37-16, 37-17, 37-17

Epiphytes, 29-6

bryophytes, 29-6

ferns, 33-10, 33-11

Epistasis, 16-14, 16-14

Epistylis [protozoan], 28-2, 28-3

Epithelial tissue, 10-2–10-3, 10-3, 10-14, 28-6

Epitopes, 43-8, 43-8

Equational division, 11-10, 11-10–11-11. See also Meiotic cell division

Equisetum [horsetail], 33-9, 33-9

ER. See Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)

ESC. See Ecological species concept (ESC)

Escherichia coli [bacterium], 26-3

and bacteriophages, 19-15–19-17, 19-16, 19-17

binary fusion of, 11-2, 11-2

and digestion, 40-21

dividing time of, 43-18

experimental evolution of, 1-15, 1-15–1-16

gene regulation in, 19-11, 19-11–19-12

genome of, 13-11, 13-11, 13-13

lactose utilization in, 19-12, 19-12–19-15, 19-13, 19-14, 19-15

restriction enzymes from, 12-14

and transcription, 3-10

Esophagus, 40-14, 40-15

ESPS. See Excitatory postsynaptic potentials (EPSP)

Essay on the Principle of Population [Malthus], 21-8–21-9

Essential amino acids, 40-10, 40-10t

Estradiol, 42-14, 42-14

Estrogen, 38-8, 38-9t, 38-14, 42-13, 42-13

and puberty, 42-13

Estrus cycle, 42-14

Ethanol fermentation, 7-15, 7-15–7-16

Ethics. See Public policy

Ethnicity. See Ancestry

Ethylene, 31-7t, 31-8

and fruit ripening, 30-16

and phototropism, 30-18, 31-20

Eudicots, 33-19–33-21, 33-20

Eukarya, 1-12, 27-9. See also Eukaryotes

diversity of, 27-9–27-20

phylogenetic tree for, 26-14, 27-10

spread of photosynthesis in, 27-16–27-19, 27-19

Eukaryotes, 1-11, 5-13. See also Animals; Fungi; Plants; Prokaryotes; Protists

cell organization of, 5-13, 5-13–5-15, 5-14–5-15

chromosome replication in, 12-8, 12-8–12-9, 12-9, 12-10

DNA replication in, 12-2–12-4, 12-3

evolution of, 1-12

gene regulation in, 19-2–19-7

genome organization of, 13-12, 13-13–13-15

genome sizes of, 13-9, 13-9–13-11

glycolysis in, 7-2

infections by, 43-18–43-19, 43-19

initiation in, 4-14, 4-14

life cycle of, 27-3–27-4, 27-4

transcription and translation in, 3-4, 3-13, 3-13, 3-15

Visual Synthesis of history of, 44-31

Eumetazoa, 44-6, 44-7

Euryarchaeota, 26-17, 26-17, 26-18

Eurypterids, 44-15

Eusocial species, 45-19

Eutrophication, 48-11, 48-11–48-14

Evaporative pumps, 29-10–29-11, 29-11

Evapotranspiration, 47-19–47-20, 47-20

Evo-devo, 28-16

Evolution, 1-12–1-16. See also Coevolution; Convergent evolution; Phylogenetic trees

and agriculture, 1-18

of animal nervous systems, 35-1–35-2

and ATP, 6-4

and the carbon cycle, 25-13–25-15

and cell membranes, 5-3

of cellular communication, 9-8

of cellular respiration, 7-16, 7-16–7-17

of citric acid cycle, 7-10, 7-10

and comparative genomics, 13-6

of complex multicellularity, 28-12, 28-12–28-16, 28-13, 28-14

of cytoskeleton, 10-7–10-8

definition of, 21-6

and developmental genes, 28-15–28-16

and DNA polymerase, 12-4

of DNA replication, 12-8

of ears, 36-9

and ecological systems, 1-17

of electron transport chain, 7-16, 7-16

of eukaryotes, 1-12

evidence for, experimental, 1-15, 1-15–1-16

evidence for, in fossils and phylogeny, 23-19–23-20, 23-20

of eye-development genes, 20-13

and fossils, 1-14, 23-19–23-20, 23-20

and gene families, 14-12, 14-12

and the geologic record, 1-14

of glycolysis, 7-5, 7-16

and Hardy–Weinberg equilibrium, 21-6–21-8

and heritability, 18-8

and human activities, 48-15–48-19

of human genome, 14-12

humans as agents of, 1-18–1-19

of mitosis, 11-3

molecular, 21-14–21-16

and mutation, 3-3, 14-15

and number of genes, 13-8

of organelles, 5-22, 7-2, 10-7–10-8, 13-14–13-15

of oxidative phosphorylation, 7-16, 7-16

of photosynthesis, 8-4, 8-4

of plants, 29-1–29-2, 30-1–30-5

of populations, 1-13

of prokaryotes, 26-20, 26-20–26-23

of proteins, 4-15, 4-18–4-19

of reproduction, 42-1–42-7

of rubisco, 8-18, 8-18

and the tree of life, 1-13–1-15, 1-14

and variation, 1-12–1-13

and vestigial structures, 40-23

Evolutionarily conserved sequences, 3-10

and developmental transcription factors, 20-11–20-13, 20-17

histone proteins, 3-10

Evolutionarily stable strategies, 45-17

Evolutionary species concept (EvSC), 22-5

Evolutionary trees. See also Genetic variation; Phylogenetic trees

for Bacteria, 26-12, 26-14, 26-14, 26-15

of HIV, 13-6–13-7, 13-7

of life, 1-13–1-15, 1-14

EvSC. See Evolutionary species concept (EvSC)

Excavates [Excavata], 27-17, 27-20

Visual Synthesis of history of, 44-30

Excitation–contraction coupling, 37-6–37-7, 37-7

Excitatory postsynaptic potentials (EPSP), 35-13, 35-14

Excretion, 41-1

of nitrogenous wastes, 41-7, 41-7–41-8

Excretory organs, 41-8, 41-8–41-9, 41-9

in animals, 41-9, 41-9–41-10, 41-10

Excretory tubules, 41-9, 41-9

Exercise

and coordination of metabolic pathways, 7-20

and metabolic rate, 40-3–40-5, 40-4

Exergonic reactions, 6-7, 6-7

Exhalation, 39-6, 39-6

Exocytosis, 5-16, 5-16, 27-1, 27-2

and excretion, 41-8

Exons, 3-17, 3-17, 19-6

and alternative splicing, 19-6–19-7, 19-7

and genomes, 13-6, 13-6

Exoskeletons, 37-13, 37-14, 37-14–37-15

and innate immunity, 43-2, 43-2

Experimentation, 1-2. See also “How Do We Know?”; Laboratory techniques; Scientific method

and the scientific method, 1-2, 1-3

I-12

Exponential growth, 46-4, 46-4

Expressivity, variable, 16-17

Extension [muscles], 37-10, 37-10

Extension [PCR], 12-11, 12-12

External fertilization, 42-7, 42-7

Extinctions. See also Mass extinctions

and biological species concept, 22-3–22-4

and climate change, 48-6

and evolutionarily stable strategies, 45-17

of hominins, 24-5

and human activity, 1-18–1-19

and patch habitats, 46-13

Visual Synthesis of, 22-16–22-17

Extracellular digestion, 40-14

Extracellular matrix, 10-2, 10-15–10-21, 28-6, 37-16

and basal lamina, 10-18, 10-18

and cell shape, 10-18–10-19, 10-19

and cell walls, 10-15–10-16, 10-16

and connective tissue, 10-17, 10-17

and endoskeletons, 37-16

and gene expression, 10-20, 10-20–10-21

Extraembryonic membranes, 42-9, 42-9

Extravasation, 43-5–43-6, 43-6

Extremophiles

and origin of life, C1-2–C1-3

and photosynthesis, 8-3, 8-3

and xanthophylls, 8-16

Eyecups, 36-12, 36-12

Eyes, 20-11, 20-11–20-12. See also Sight, sense of

and color vision, 36-14, 36-14–36-15, 36-15

compound, 36-12, 36-12

development of, 20-12, 20-12–20-13, 20-13

function of, 36-13–36-14, 36-14

sensory processing by, 36-15, 36-15–36-16

types of, 36-11–36-13, 36-12

F₁ generations, 16-4, 16-5

F₂ generations, 16-5, 16-5–16-6, 16-6t

Fab fragments, 43-8, 43-8

Facilitated diffusion, 5-8, 5-9

Facultative mutualisms, 47-6

FADH/FADH₂. See Flavin adenine dinucleotide (FADH/FADH₂)

Fallopian tubes, 42-12, 42-12

Families, 23-4, 23-5

FAP. See Fixed action pattern (FAP)

Fast-twitch fibers, 37-11, 37-11–37-12

Fat, 7-18

Fatty acids, 2-11

saturated versus unsaturated, 5-3–5-4, 5-4

as sources of energy, 7-18, 7-18–7-19

structure of, 2-15, 2-15

Fc fragments, 43-8, 43-8

Feathers, evolution of, 23-16

Feature detectors, 45-4, 45-4

Feces, 40-15, 40-20

Feedback, 38-5

and gene regulation, 19-10

negative, 6-14, 35-17–35-18, 35-18, 38-5, 38-5–38-6

positive, 35-8, 38-5, 38-6, 38-6

Feeding, 40-12, 40-12–40-14, 40-13, 40-14

Fermentation, 7-15, 7-15–7-16, 26-8

hindgut versus foregut, 40-22, 40-22

Ferns, 29-2

diversity of, 33-9, 33-9–33-10

phylogenetic tree for, 33-9

polyploidy in, 13-10

and rice agriculture, 33-10–33-11

Visual Synthesis of history of, 44-31

Fertilization, 20-2, 42-16, 42-16–42-17

external versus internal, 42-7, 42-7–42-8

in plants, 30-2

Visual Synthesis of, 42-20

in vitro, 42-17

Fertilizers

eutrophication, 48-11, 48-11–48-14

and nitrogen fixation, 26-12, 29-18

Fetuses, 42-18

development of, 42-18–42-19, 42-20–42-21

Visual Synthesis of, 42-21

Fibers [muscle], 37-1, 37-2. See also Muscles

slow-twitch versus fast-twitch, 37-11, 37-11–37-12

Fibers [wood], 31-12, 31-13

Fibrils, 10-17, 10-17

Fiddleheads, 33-9, 33-9

Fight-or-flight response, 35-17

and adrenaline, 38-16

Filaments, 37-2

thick versus thin, 37-3, 37-3, 37-4

Filial imprinting, 45-10–45-11, 45-11

Filtration, 41-9, 41-9

Finches, Galápagos, 22-9, 22-10, 22-11

Firing rates, 36-4, 36-4

First-division nondisjunction, 15-12, 15-12

First law of thermodynamics, 1-6–1-7, 1-7, 6-5, 6-5–6-6

Fish, 44-22, 44-22–44-24, 44-23

age structure in, 46-8, 46-9

breathing of, 39-4, 39-4–39-5, 39-5

cichlid, 38-18, 38-18

communication by, 45-14

feeding by, 40-12, 40-12

hearts of, 39-18, 39-18

jawless, 44-21–44-23, 44-22

kidneys of, 41-11, 41-11

life cycle of, 41-4, 41-4

osmoregulation in, 41-3, 41-3–41-4

and pheromones, 38-18, 38-18

Fisher, Ronald, 21-9–21-10

Fitness, 21-9

5′ cap, 3-16, 3-16–3-17

and gene regulation, 19-9, 19-9

5′ end, 3-6

and DNA repair, 14-14

Fixation [of alleles], 21-10

Fixed action pattern (FAP), 45-2–45-3, 45-3

Fixed populations, 21-6

Visual Synthesis of, 22-16–22-17

Flagella, 10-4, 10-4, 42-10

in opisthokonts, 27-10–27-11, 27-11

as propulsion devices, 10-4, 10-10

of sperm cells, 10-4, 11-13, 42-10, 42-11

in sponges, 44-6

Flatworms, 39-2

excretory organs of, 41-9, 41-9

eyecups in, 36-12, 36-12

gas exchange in, 39-2

Flavin adenine dinucleotide (FADH/FADH₂), 7-4

and b-oxidation, 7-18, 7-19

and electron transport chain, 7-10–7-12, 7-11

Fleas, 44-15

Fleshy-finned fish, 44-24, 44-24

Flexion, 37-10, 37-10

Flies, fruit. See Drosophila melanogaster [fruit fly]

Flies, house, 20-11, 20-11

Flight, adaptations for, 44-26

Florigen, 30-18, 31-8

Flowering plants. See Angiosperms

Flowers

and climate change, 48-6, 48-6

combinatorial control in, 20-14, 20-14–20-15, 20-15

development of, 20-13–20-14, 20-14, 31-6, 31-6

diversity of, 20-15, 30-9, 30-10–30-12, 30-11

and fruits, 30-15, 30-15–30-16, 30-16

and pollen, 30-9–30-10, 30-10

structure of, 30-9, 30-9–30-10

in ultraviolet light, 36-12, 36-12

Fluid mosaic model, 5-6

Fluidity, 5-3

Fluorescence, 8-10, 8-10

and dyes, 12-3–12-4, 12-13, 12-16, 12-17, 15-10, 15-10

Fluorescent recovery after photobleaching (FRAP), 5-7, 5-7

Fluxes, 25-6–25-7, 25-6–25-7

Folding domains, 4-15, 4-15, 4-18

and active sites, 6-11, 6-11

and gene regulation, 19-10

Follicle cells, 42-13, 42-14

Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), 38-9t, 38-14, 42-13, 42-13

and menstrual cycle, 42-13–42-14, 42-14

Follicular phase, 42-14, 42-14

Food chains, 25-12

Food webs, 25-12, 25-12, 47-9, 47-13–47-14, 47-14

Foraminifera, 27-21, 27-21

Forebrain, 36-17, 36-17

Foregut, 40-14, 40-15

Fossil fuels

and atmospheric carbon dioxide, 25-4, 25-4–25-6, 25-5, 48-3, 48-3

origin of, 8-3

Fossils, 23-11–23-19

in amber, C8-2, 47-22, 47-22–47-23

of angiosperms, 33-15

conditions for formation of, 23-12

Ediacaran, 44-27, 44-27

and evolution, 1-14, 44-27

and history of atmospheric carbon dioxide, 25-11

and history of life, 23-11, 23-11–23-13, 23-12, 23-13, 47-22–47-23

and history of multicellularity, 28-12–28-16, 28-13, 28-14

and human evolution, 24-4, 24-4–24-5, 24-5, 24-6

I-13

of lycophytes, 33-5–33-6, 33-6

micro-, 26-20, 26-20, 27-20–27-22, 27-21, 27-22

molecular, 23-13

and phylogeny, 23-19–23-20, 23-20

of plants, 31-1, 31-5, 33-1

of protists, 27-20–27-22, 27-21, 27-22

trace, 23-12, 23-12, 28-13

and transitional forms, 23-16, 23-17

Founder effects, 21-13

Fovea, 36-13, 36-15

Fox, George, 26-5

Foxes, 47-9–47-10, 47-10

Fragmentation, 42-2, 42-3

Frameshift mutations, 14-9, 14-9

Francis, H. C., 12-2

Franklin, Rosalind, 3-6

FRAP. See Fluorescent recovery after photobleaching (FRAP)

Fraternal (dizygotic) twins, 18-8, 18-8–18-9

studies of, 18-9–18-10, 18-9t, 18-10

Frequency of recombination, 17-10–17-11

Frisch, Karl von, 45-1, 45-16

Frogs, 44-25

African clawed [Xenopus laevis], 20-3, 20-3

communication by, 45-14

differentiation in, 20-3, 20-3

external fertilization of, 42-7, 42-7

leopard [Rana pipiens], 20-4

Frontal lobes, 36-18, 36-19, 36-19

Fructose, 7-17, 7-18

structure of, 2-13–2-14, 2-14

Fruit flies. See Drosophila melanogaster [fruit fly]

Fruiting bodies, 34-8–34-9, 34-9

Fruits, 30-15, 30-15–30-16, 30-16

and mutualisms, 47-6

Visual Synthesis of, 33-22

FSH. See Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)

Fungi, 34-1. See also specific fungus

bulk transport in, 28-6

as complex multicellular organisms, 28-3, 28-4

as consumers, 25-12, 25-12

as decomposers, 34-1, 34-3–34-4, 34-4

diversity of, 34-12–34-19

early evolution of, 28-14, 28-15

hyphae of, 34-2, 34-2

in lichen, 34-6, 34-6–34-7, 34-7

life cycle of, 34-10, 34-10–34-11, 34-15, 34-15, 34-18, 34-18

and meiosis, 11-14

and nutrient uptake by roots, 29-16, 29-17

as pathogens, 34-4, 34-4–34-5, 34-5, 47-5

phylogenetic tree for, 34-12, 34-12

reproduction of, 34-7–34-12, 34-8, 34-9, 34-11

symbiosis in, 34-5, 34-5–34-7

yeasts, 34-2–34-3, 34-3

G₀ phase [cell cycle], 11-3, 11-4

G₁ phase [cell cycle], 11-3, 11-3–11-4

G₂ phase [cell cycle], 11-3, 11-3–11-4

G protein-coupled receptors, 9-7, 9-7–9-8

and signal transmission, 9-8, 9-8–9-11, 9-9, 9-10, 9-11

G proteins, 9-7, 9-7–9-8

activation of, 9-8, 9-9

Gage, Phineas, 36-17, 36-17

Gain-of-function mutations, 20-12

Galactose, 7-17, 7-18

structure of, 2-13–2-14, 2-14

Galápagos Islands. See Finches, Galápagos

Gallbladder, 40-18, 40-18

Galton, Francis, 18-1, 18-6–18-8, 18-10

Gametes, 11-1, 16-6, 27-3

and meiosis, 11-13–11-14

and segregation of alleles, 16-6

Gametogenesis, 42-15, 42-15–42-16

Gametophytes, 30-3, 30-3, 30-7

Ganglia, 35-2, 35-16

Ganglion cells, 36-15, 36-15

Gap genes, 20-8, 20-8

Gap junctions, 10-14, 10-15, 28-8, 28-8

Garner, Wightman, 30-17

Gas exchange, 39-1–39-3

respiratory, 39-4–39-9

Gastric cavities, 44-7, 44-7

Gastrin, 38-8, 38-10t, 40-16, 40-17

Gastropods, 44-13, 44-13

Gastrulas, 20-2, 20-2, 28-11, 28-11

Gastrulation, 20-5, 20-6, 28-11, 28-11, 42-18–42-19, 42-19

Visual Synthesis of, 42-20

Gause, Georgii, 46-16

Gautier, Marthe, 15-13

Gazelles, 35-1, 35-2

Geese

and communities, 47-9–47-10, 47-10

fixed action pattern of, 45-2–45-3, 45-3

imprinting by, 45-10–45-11, 45-11

Gehring, Walter, 20-12–20-13, 36-11

Gel electrophoresis, 12-11, 12-13, 12-13, 12-14

measuring genetic variation using, 21-3, 21-5, 21-5

Gene expression, 3-4, 4-16–4-17, 19-1

and extracellular matrix proteins, 10-20, 10-20–10-21

Visual Synthesis of, 20-18–20-19

Gene families, 14-12, 14-12

Gene flow, 21-13

Gene pool, 21-2

Gene regulation, 19-1, 19-2

at chromosome level, 19-3–19-4, 19-5

in eukaryotes, 19-2–19-10

and multicellularity, 28-8–28-10, 28-15–28-16

positive versus negative, 19-11, 19-11–19-12

in prokaryotes, 19-10–19-17

Genera [Genus], 23-4, 23-5

General transcription factors, 3-13, 3-13, 19-5

Genes, 1-10

alleles of, 16-5

and behavior, 45-2–45-8

and biological complexity, 13-7–13-9, 13-8t, 13-9

as components of chromosomes, 17-6, 17-6–17-7

developmental, 20-7–20-9, 20-8, 20-9

distances between, 17-10–17-11

downstream, 20-13

effect of, on complex traits, 18-10–18-13, 18-12

homeotic, 20-9, 20-9–20-11, 20-10, 20-11

housekeeping, 3-12

linked, 16-13, 17-8–17-12

mapping of, 17-11–17-12, 17-12, 17-13

segregation of, 16-6–16-7

structural, 19-13

transmission of, 16-3

X-linked, 17-3–17-8, 17-4

Y-linked, 17-13, 17-13–17-15, 17-14

Genetic code, 4-10–4-12, 4-12

Genetic drift, 21-13–21-14, 21-14

versus natural selection, 21-14, 22-15

Visual Synthesis of, 22-16–22-17

Genetic engineering. See also Genetically modified organisms (GMOs)

and agriculture, C6-4, 32-8

and horizontal gene transfer, 26-4

Genetic fingerprinting. See DNA typing

Genetic incompatibility, 22-6

Genetic information, 3-1

flow of, 3-3–3-4, 3-4

Genetic Information Nondiscrimination Act (GINA), 16-18, 20-18

Genetic maps, 17-11–17-12, 17-12, 17-13

Genetic risk factors, 14-4–14-5

and genetic mapping, 17-11–17-12, 17-12, 17-13

tests for, 16-17–16-18

Genetic tests, 16-17–16-18

Visual Synthesis of, 20-18

Genetic variation, 1-13, 15-1, 21-1–21-3. See also Diversity; Phylogenetic trees

in Archaea, 26-16–26-19, 26-18

and artificial selection, 33-21

in Bacteria, 26-12–26-16, 26-16

beneficial, 15-5, 15-5–15-6

in chromosomes, 15-11–15-16, 15-12, 15-16

and disease risk factors, 15-3–15-5, 15-4

in genomes, 15-8–15-11, 15-10, 15-11

and genotypes, 15-1–15-3, 15-2

and heritability, 18-7, 18-7–18-8

and horizontal gene transfer, 8-4

in humans, 24-12–24-15, 24-15

and individual uniqueness, 15-6–15-8, 15-7

and the long-term carbon cycle, 25-13–25-15

measurement of, 21-3–21-6, 21-5

and meiosis, 11-14

and migration, 21-13

and mutations, 14-15, 21-13

and segregation of alleles, 16-10

and sexual reproduction, 27-3–27-4

Visual Synthesis of, 20-18

Genetically modified organisms (GMOs), 12-19, 12-19–12-20. See also Genetic engineering

and malaria, C4-4

Genetics, transmission. See Transmission genetics

I-14

Genome, human

and comparative genomics, 13-6

and DNA typing, 15-6, 15-6–15-8, 15-7

evolution of, 14-12

and extra sex chromosomes, 15-14–15-15, 15-15

mutation rate in, 14-2, 14-2

noncoding DNA in, 13-10–13-11, 13-11

and nondisjunction, 15-12–15-14, 15-13

organization of, into chromosomes, 13-13–13-14, 13-14

size of, 3-7, 13-1

variation in, 15-8–15-11, 15-10, 15-11

Genome, personal [Case 3], C3-2–C3-4, C3-3

and ancestry, 17-16

and detection of genetic risk factors, 15-9

and genetic risk factors, 14-4–14-5

and lifestyle choices, 19-10

and personalized medicine, 18-12–18-13

reasons for sequencing, 13-4

and regenerative medicine, 20-5

technologies needed for, 12-16–12-17

Genome annotation, 13-4–13-7, 13-5

and comparative genomics, 13-6

and complex traits, 18-11

of HIV, 13-7, 13-7

and intron–exon structure, 13-6, 13-6

and sequence motifs, 13-5, 13-5–13-6

Genomes, 13-1

and biological complexity, 13-9, 13-9–13-11

mutation rates in, 14-2, 14-2

of organelles, 13-14–13-15

organization of, 13-11–13-15, 13-12, 27-2–27-3

sequencing of, 13-1–13-4, 13-3, 18-11

sizes of, 13-5, 13-8t

Genomic rearrangement, 43-10–43-13, 43-11, 43-12

Genomics, comparative, 13-6

Genotype-by-environment interactions, 15-2, 15-3, 18-5, 18-5

Genotypes, 15-1–15-3, 15-2, 16-5

and complex traits, 18-11

and Hardy–Weinberg equilibrium, 21-7, 21-7

and segregation of alleles, 16-6

Visual Synthesis of, 20-18

Geographic range, 46-2, 46-2

Geologic timescale, 23-14, 23-14

Visual Synthesis of, 44-30

Geology, 23-13–23-17. See also Fossils; Mass extinctions; Plate tectonics

Burgess Shale, 23-13, 23-13, 44-28

and the Cambrian explosion, 44-27–44-28, 44-28

and dendrochronology, 23-15

Ediacaran beds, 44-27, 44-27

and long-term carbon cycle, 25-6–25-12

Messel Shale, 23-13, 23-13

and meteorites, 1-4, 1-4–1-5, 23-18

and Pangaea, 23-16, 23-16, 23-18

and radiometric dating, 23-15, 23-15

and volcanoes, 23-18, 25-7, 25-9

and weathering, 25-7–25-8, 25-9

Gephyrocapsa oceanica [coccolithophorid], 48-9

Germ cells, 12-9, 14-2

mutations in, 14-2, 14-3–14-4

telomerase in, 12-9

Germ layers, 20-2, 20-2, 42-19, 42-19

Germ-line mutations, 14-2, 14-3–14-4, 21-2

Germination, 30-18, 30-20–30-21, 30-21

GH. See Growth hormone (GH)

Gibberellic acid, 31-7t, 31-8, 31-9–31-10

Gibbons, 24-2, 24-2

Gibbs free energy (G), 6-7, 6-7

Giemsa staining, 13-14, 13-14

Gills, 39-3, 39-4

breathing through, 39-4–39-5, 39-5

Gilmore, Claudia, C3-2, C3-2–C3-4, 13-4, 14-5, 15-9, 17-14

GINA. See Genetic Information Nondiscrimination Act (GINA)

Ginger flower [Smithatris supraneanae], 20-15

Ginkgos, 33-12–33-13, 33-13

Gizzards, 40-16

Glaciations, 23-16, 25-10–25-11, 25-11

Visual Synthesis of history of, 44-31

Glans penis, 42-11

Glaucocystophytes, 27-13, 27-14

Gleason, Henry, 47-9, 47-12

Glial cells, 35-6

Global warming, 48-3, 48-3–48-5, 48-5. See also Climate change

Globin folds, 4-15, 4-15

Glomeromycetes, 34-14

Glomerulus, 41-11, 41-11

filtration in, 41-12–41-13, 41-13

Glucagon, 38-6, 38-8, 38-10t

Glucose

absorption of, 40-19–40-20, 40-20

control of, 38-5–38-6, 38-6

glycolysis of, 7-5–7-7, 7-6

preferential utilization of, 19-15, 19-16

storage of, 7-17, 7-17

structure of, 2-13–2-14, 2-14

Glycerol, 2-15, 2-15

Glycine, 4-2, 4-3

Glycogen, 7-17, 7-17

Glycolysis, 7-2, 7-2, 7-5–7-7, 7-6

of non-glucose sugars, 7-17, 7-18

Visual Synthesis of, 8-21

Glycosidic bonds, 2-14, 2-14–2-15

Glycosylation, 5-18

GMOs. See Genetically modified organisms (GMOs)

Gnetophytes, 33-14, 33-14

Gnetum [gnetophyte], 33-14, 33-14

GnRH. See Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH)

Golgi, Camillo, 35-6

Golgi apparatus, 5-14, 5-14–5-15, 5-16, 5-18, 5-18–5-19, 27-2, 27-2

Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH), 42-13, 42-13

Gonads, 42-10

Goodall, Jane, 1-14

Gordon, Andrew, 37-8

Gorillas, 24-2, 24-3

Gottschalk, Carl W., 41-16

Gram, Hans Christian, 26-15

Gram-positive bacteria, 26-15, 26-15

Grana, 8-5, 8-5

Grand Canyon, 23-12

Granulocytes, 43-3, 43-4

Granulomas, 43-18, 43-18

Grapes, wine [Vitis vinifera], 1-17

diseases of, 32-6

Grasses

C₄ photosynthesis in, 29-8

and communities, 47-10, 47-10

evolution of, 33-18, 33-18–33-19, 33-19

and grazing, 32-12, 32-12–32-13

as monocots, 33-17

pollination of, 30-12

Grasshoppers

breathing of, 39-4

digestive tracts of, 40-15

exoskeleton of, 37-14, 37-14

growth and development of, 38-2, 38-2, 44-15

Gravitropism, 31-17, 31-18, 31-18

Gray matter, 36-18, 36-18

Green Revolution. See Agriculture [Case 6]

Greenhouse gases, 25-10, 48-4, 48-4

Griffin, Donald, 36-21

Griffith, Frederick, 3-2–3-3, 3-4

Grinnell, Joseph, 47-1

Group selection, 45-16–45-17, 45-17

Growth

exponential, 46-4, 46-4

intrinsic rate of, 46-4

logistic, 46-5, 46-5–46-6

Growth factor, 9-4, 9-4–9-5, 9-5

Growth hormone (GH), 38-4, 38-9t, 38-14, 38-17

Growth plates, 37-16, 37-17

Growth [populations], 46-3–46-5

Growth rings, 31-11–31-12, 31-12

and dendrochronology, 23-15

Guanine (G), 2-12, 2-12, 3-5, 3-5

pairing of, 3-7

Guard cells, 29-5, 29-5

Guérin, Camille, 43-18

Gurdon, John, 20-3

Gustation, 36-5. See also Taste, sense of

Gymnosperms, 29-2. See also Angiosperms

diversity of, 33-11, 33-11–33-14

life cycle of, 30-6, 30-7

phylogenetic tree for, 33-11

wood of, 31-12, 31-13

Haber, Fritz, 29-18

Haber–Bosch process, 29-18

Habitat

and coexistence of species, 46-16–46-17, 46-17

and island biogeography, 46-14, 46-14–46-16, 46-15, 46-16

loss of, 48-16, 48-16

versus niche, 47-3

patches of, 46-12, 46-12–46-13, 46-13

Habituation, 45-8

Hagfish, 44-22, 44-22

Hair cells, 36-6

and sense of sound, 36-8, 36-8–36-10, 36-9

Hairpins, 19-8, 19-8

I-15

Half-life, 23-15, 23-15

Haloquadratum walsbyi [bacterium], 26-3

Hamilton, William D., 45-18–45-19

Hanahan, Douglas, 11-21

Hanson, Jean, 37-4

Haploidy, 11-5, 27-3

Haplotypes, 17-14, 17-14

Hardy, Godfrey H., 21-6

Hardy–Weinberg equilibrium, 21-6–21-8, 21-7

Hatch, Marshall, 8-8

Hawks, 47-3

hCG. See Human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG)

Healing

and cell cycle, 11-14

and cell migration, 10-18

and cell signaling, 9-13

Health. See also Diseases and abnormalities

and intestinal bacteria, 26-22, 26-22–26-23

Hearing. See Ears; Sound, sense of

Heart rate (HR), 39-21–39-22

Hearts, 39-13, 39-17–39-22

in amphibians, 39-18, 39-18–39-19

beating of, 39-20–39-21, 39-21

in fish, 39-18, 39-18

in mammals and birds, 39-19, 39-19–39-20

output of, 39-21–39-22

in reptiles, 39-19

Heartwood, 31-11

Heat

and kinetic energy, 6-4

and thermodynamics, 1-7, 1-7, 6-6

Heat capacity, of water, 2-8

Heavy (H) chains, 43-8, 43-8

Height, human

as complex trait, 18-2, 18-2

factors influencing, 18-4–18-5

and natural selection, 21-11

and regression toward the mean, 18-6, 18-6–18-7, 18-7

Helicase, 12-7, 12-7

Heliobacter pylori [bacterium], 26-22, 40-17

Helmont, Jan Baptist van, 8-1

Helper T cells, 43-3, 43-13, 43-13t, 43-14

activation of, 43-14–43-15, 43-15

Hemichordates [Hemichordata], 44-18, 44-18–44-19

Hemidesmosomes, 10-14, 10-15t, 10-18

Hemipenes, 42-11

Hemoglobin, 39-10, 39-10–39-11

binding of oxygen by, 39-11, 39-11–39-13, 39-13

and genotype, 15-2, 15-2–15-3

mutations in coding sequences for, 14-7–14-8

structure of, 4-7, 4-8, 4-8

Hemolymph, 39-3

in open circulatory systems, 39-13–39-14

oxygen transport by, 39-10

Hemophilia, 17-8, 17-8

Henle, F. G. J., 41-14

Herbivory, 40-21–40-22, 47-8t

Heredity. See also Genetic information; Transmission genetics

and DNA, 3-2

Heritability, 18-7, 18-7–18-8

Hermaphrodites, 20-16

Herons, 47-4

Hershey, Alfred, 3-3

Hess, Carl von, 45-1

Heterokaryotic stage, 34-10, 34-10

Heterotrophs, 6-2, 6-2–6-3

fungi as, 34-1

Heterozygote advantage, 21-10

Heterozygous alleles, 15-2, 15-2, 16-6

Heyne, Benjamin, 29-6

Hibernation, 40-10

Hierarchical control of development, 20-5

High-energy phosphate bonds, 3-14

Highly repetitive DNA, 13-10

Hill, A. V., 37-8, 37-9