Psychological Disorders
KEY POINTS
Introduction: Understanding Psychological Disorders
Distinguishing “normal” from “abnormal” behavior involves consideration of many different factors, including cultural norms. Psychopathology refers to the scientific study of the origins, symptoms, and development of psychological disorders.
A psychological disorder, or mental disorder, is a pattern of behavioral or psychological symptoms that causes significant personal distress and/or impairs the ability to function.
The diagnostic criteria for specific psychological disorders are described in DSM-5, which has been criticized for gender bias, cultural bias, and for pathologizing normal behavior and experiences.
The prevalence of psychological disorders is much higher than had previously been thought. According to one comprehensive survey, approximately one in two Americans will experience a psychological disorder at some point in their lifetimes, and approximately one in four Americans has experienced the symptoms of a psychological disorder in the previous year. Comorbidity is common, meaning that many people are diagnosed with more than one disorder.
Fear and Trembling: Anxiety Disorders, Posttraumatic Stress Disorder, and Obsessive–
In contrast to normal anxiety, anxiety disorders consist of irrational and uncontrollable feelings that are unreasonably intense, frequent, persistent, and disruptive.
Generalized anxiety disorder (GAD) and panic disorder are characterized by intense anxiety that is not triggered by a specific stimulus. Generalized anxiety disorder involves a constant, persistent state of anxiety. Panic disorder involves sudden episodes of extreme, intense anxiety, which are called panic attacks. Agoraphobia is fear of suffering a panic attack or other embarrassing symptoms in a public or inescapable situation.
The phobias involve intense and irrational fear, and avoidance of the feared object or situation. Important forms of phobias include specific phobia and social anxiety disorder. Learning theories and evolved biological predispositions have been offered as explanations of the development of phobias.
Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) develops in response to an extreme psychological or physical trauma. Symptoms include frequent intrusive memories of the trauma, avoidance of stimuli and situations associated with the event; negative changes in thoughts, moods, and emotions, and a persistent state of heightened physical arousal.
Obsessive-compulsive disorder is a disorder in which a person’s life is dominated by repetitive thoughts (obsessions) and actions (compulsions). Biological factors that have been implicated in obsessive–
Disordered Moods and Emotions: Depressive and Bipolar Disorders
The depressive and bipolar disorders, also called affective disorders, involve serious, persistent disturbances in emotions that cause psychological discomfort and/or impair the ability to function.
The symptoms of major depressive disorder include negative emotions, extreme pessimism, thoughts of suicide, cognitive impairment, lack of motivation, and sleep disruption for a period of two weeks or longer. Persistent depressive disorder is a chronic form of depression that is often less severe than major depressive disorder.
Major depressive disorder is the most common psychological disorder. Left untreated, major depressive disorder may recur and become progressively more severe. Seasonal affective disorder (SAD) generally occurs with the onset of the fall and winter months, and is associated with lesser amounts of sunlight.
Bipolar disorder usually involves periods of depression alternating with manic episodes. A milder form of bipolar disorder is cyclothymic disorder. Bipolar disorder is less common than major depressive disorder.
Genetics, brain chemistry, and stress have all been implicated in the depressive disorders and bipolar disorders. The neurotransmitters serotonin and norepinephrine have been implicated in major depressive disorder. Another neurotransmitter, glutamate, may be involved in bipolar disorder.
Eating Disorders: Anorexia, Bulimia, and Binge-Eating Disorder
Eating disorders are serious and maladaptive disturbances in eating behavior. Anorexia nervosa is defined by the refusal to maintain a normal body weight, an irrational fear of gaining weight, and distorted perceptions about body size.
Bulimia nervosa involves episodes of bingeing and purging. People with this eating disorder typically maintain a normal body weight. Binge-eating disorder involves episodes of bingeing without purging.
Eating disorders are more common in females than males. Factors that contribute to the development of eating disorders include genetics and disruptions of neurotransmitters and other chemical signals that normally regulate eating behavior. Cultural attitudes also contribute to eating disorders.
Personality Disorders: Maladaptive Traits
Personality disorders are characterized by inflexible, maladaptive patterns of thoughts, emotions, behavior, and interpersonal functioning. These traits are stable over time and across situations, and deviate from the social and behavioral expectations of the individual’s culture.
Personality disorders are grouped into three clusters: the odd, eccentric cluster; the dramatic, emotional, erratic cluster; and the anxious, fearful cluster.
Antisocial personality disorder is characterized by a pervasive pattern of disregarding and violating the rights of others. People with this personality disorder habitually deceive and manipulate others for their own gain. A history of substance abuse, arrests, and other irresponsible behaviors is common. Multiple factors seem to be involved in the development of antisocial personality disorder.
Borderline personality disorder is characterized by instability of interpersonal relationships, self-image, and emotions. Mood swings, impulsive actions, self-destructive tendencies, and substance abuse are common features. Factors that seem to contribute to the development of this disorder include parental neglect or abuse during childhood.
The Dissociative Disorders: Fragmentation of the Self
Dissociative experiences involve a disruption in awareness, memory, and personal identity. In the dissociative disorders, however, dissociative experiences are extreme, frequent, and disruptive.
Dissociative amnesia is characterized by the inability to recall important information, an inability that is not due to a medical condition and that cannot be explained by ordinary forgetfulness. Some cases of dissociative amnesia involve dissociative fugue, which is amnesia with sudden, unexplained travel away from home.
Dissociative identity disorder (DID) involves memory gaps and the presence of two or more distinct identities. Some psychologists are skeptical of dissociative identity disorder. According to one theory, DID is caused by trauma in childhood and represents an extreme form of coping through dissociation.
Schizophrenia: A Different Reality
Schizophrenia is a psychological disorder that involves severely distorted beliefs, perceptions, and thought processes.
The positive symptoms of schizophrenia represent excesses in normal functioning. They include delusions, hallucinations, and severely disorganized thought processes, speech, and behavior. Negative symptoms reflect deficits or decreases in normal functioning. They include flat affect, alogia, and avolition.
The course of schizophrenia is highly variable. Schizophrenia becomes chronic in about one-half of the people who experience a schizophrenic episode. About one-quarter recover completely, and about one-quarter experience recurrent episodes but are able to function with minimal impairment.
Family, twin, and adoption studies have shown that genetics contributes to the development of schizophrenia. However, studies of identical twins demonstrate that nongenetic factors play at least an equal role in the development of schizophrenia. Non-inherited genetic factors are probably involved in schizophrenia, as researchers have found that genetic mutations are much more common in people with schizophrenia. Bipolar disorder and schizophrenia seem to share some common genetic markers. Although genetics is clearly implicated in the development of schizophrenia, no specific gene or pattern of genetic variation has been found to be clearly predictive of schizophrenia. The risk of schizophrenia is higher in the offspring of older fathers.
According to the dopamine hypothesis, excess dopamine in the brain may be associated with schizophrenia. Newer hypotheses also implicate the neurotransmitters glutamate and adenosine in schizophrenia. Along with abnormal brain chemistry, abnormalities in brain structure and function have been identified as factors associated with schizophrenia. Environmental factors that may be involved in schizophrenia include exposure to a virus during prenatal development and a psychologically unhealthy family environment. Adopted children who were genetically at risk to develop schizophrenia were found to be less likely to develop the disorder when raised in a psychologically healthy family.
Match each of the terms on the left with its definition on the right. Click on the term first and then click on the matching definition. As you match them correctly they will move to the bottom of the activity.