Learning
KEY POINTS
Introduction: What Is Learning?
Learning is defined as a relatively enduring change in behavior or knowledge that is due to past experience. Learning often reflects adaptation to the environment. Conditioning is the process of learning associations between environmental events and behavioral responses. Classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and observational learning are three types of learning.
Classical Conditioning: Associating Stimuli
Ivan Pavlov, a Russian physiologist, discovered the principles of classical conditioning while studying the digestive system of dogs.
Classical conditioning deals with reflexive behaviors that are elicited by a stimulus and results from learning an association between two stimuli. A neutral stimulus is repeatedly paired with an unlearned, natural stimulus (the unconditioned stimulus, or UCS), producing a reflexive response (the unconditioned response, or UCR). Eventually, the neutral stimulus (now called a conditioned stimulus, or CS) elicits the same reflexive response (the conditioned response, or CR) that was initially elicited by the natural stimulus.
Factors that affect the strength of the conditioned response include the frequency with which the conditioned and unconditioned stimuli are paired, and the timing of the stimulus presentations.
In stimulus generalization, a new stimulus that is similar to the conditioned stimulus produces the conditioned response. In stimulus discrimination, one stimulus elicits the conditioned response but another, similar stimulus does not.
Higher order conditioning occurs when a conditioned stimulus functions as an unconditioned stimulus in a new conditioning trial.
In classical conditioning, extinction occurs when the conditioned stimulus no longer elicits the conditioned response. However, extinction is not unlearning. Spontaneous recovery of the conditioned response may occur.
John B. Watson defined psychology as the scientific study of behavior and founded behaviorism. According to Watson, all human behavior is a result of conditioning and learning.
As Watson demonstrated in his famous Little Albert study, emotional responses can be classically conditioned.
Classical conditioning can also contribute to the placebo response and other drug effects.
Contemporary Views of Classical Conditioning
Modern learning researchers acknowledge that mental processes and natural behavior patterns influence the learning process. Robert Rescorla demonstrated that classical conditioning involves learning the relations between events and assessing the reliability of signals.
John Garcia’s research showed that taste aversions violate key principles of classical conditioning, which is affected by biological preparedness. For a given species, some stimuli are more readily associated than others.
Operant Conditioning: Associating Behaviors and Consequences
Edward Thorndike investigated the learning of active behaviors and formulated the law of effect. B. F. Skinner’s operant conditioning principles explain how operants, or new, voluntary behaviors, are acquired.
Operant conditioning explains learning as a process in which behavior is shaped and modified by its consequences. Reinforcement increases the likelihood of an operant’s being repeated. In positive reinforcement, a response is strengthened because a reinforcing stimulus is added or presented. In negative reinforcement, a response is strengthened because an aversive stimulus is subtracted or removed. Reinforcers may be primary reinforcers or conditioned reinforcers.
Punishment decreases the likelihood of an operant’s being repeated. Two forms of punishment are positive punishment (also called punishment by application) and negative punishment (also called punishment by removal). Aversive consequences do not always function as effective punishments. As a method of controlling behavior, punishment has many drawbacks.
The discriminative stimulus is the stimulus in the presence of which a particular operant is likely to be reinforced; it sets the occasion for a particular response.
New behaviors can be acquired through the process of shaping. An operant chamber, or Skinner box, is often used to study the acquisition of new behaviors by laboratory animals. Shaping is frequently used in everyday life to teach new behaviors.
Once acquired, behaviors are maintained through continuous reinforcement or partial reinforcement. Behaviors on a partial reinforcement schedule are more resistant to extinction than are behaviors on a continuous reinforcement schedule. This phenomenon is known as the partial reinforcement effect. Schedules of reinforcement include the fixed-ratio (FR), variable-ratio (VR), fixed-interval (FI), and variable-interval (VI) schedules.
In behavior modification, the principles of operant conditioning are applied to help people develop more adaptive behaviors.
Contemporary Views of Operant Conditioning
Modern learning researchers acknowledge that operant conditioning involves cognitive processes and is influenced by natural behavior patterns. Edward Tolman’s research on cognitive maps and latent learning demonstrated the involvement of cognitive processes in learning active behaviors. Learned helplessness may result when a person or an animal develops the cognitive expectation that aversive stimuli are unavoidable or uncontrollable.
The phenomenon of instinctive drift refers to the fact that an animal’s natural behavior patterns can affect operant conditioning by influencing what it is capable of learning.
Observational Learning: Imitating the Actions of Others
Albert Bandura systematically investigated how new behaviors could be acquired through observational learning. Observational learning involves the cognitive processes of attention, memory, motor skills, and motivation.
Match each of the terms on the left with its definition on the right. Click on the term first and then click on the matching definition. As you match them correctly they will move to the bottom of the activity.
behavior modification behaviorism biological preparedness classical conditioning cognitive map conditioned reinforcer conditioned response (CR) conditioned stimulus (CS) conditioning continuous reinforcement discriminative stimulus extinction (in classical conditioning) extinction (in operant conditioning) fixed-interval (FI) schedule fixed-ratio (FR) schedule higher order conditioning instinctive drift latent learning law of effect learned helplessness learning mirror neurons negative punishment negative reinforcement observational learning operant operant chamber or Skinner box operant conditioning partial reinforcement partial reinforcement effect placebo response positive punishment positive reinforcement primary reinforcer punishment reinforcement schedule of reinforcement shaping spontaneous recovery stimulus discrimination stimulus generalization taste aversion unconditioned response (UCR) unconditioned stimulus (UCS) variable-interval (VI) schedule variable-ratio (VR) schedule | The gradual weakening and disappearance of conditioned behavior. In operant conditioning, extinction occurs when an emitted behavior is no longer followed by a reinforcer. The application of learning principles to help people develop more effective or adaptive behaviors. The gradual weakening and apparent disappearance of conditioned behavior. In classical conditioning, extinction occurs when the conditioned stimulus is repeatedly presented without the unconditioned stimulus. The presentation of a stimulus or event following a behavior that acts to decrease the likelihood of the behavior being repeated. Tolman's term for the mental representation of the layout of a familiar environment. The basic learning process that involves changing the probability that a response will be repeated by manipulating the consequences of that response. A specific stimulus in the presence of which a particular response is more likely to be reinforced, and in the absence of which a particular response is not likely to be reinforced. The occurrence of a learned response to a specific stimulus but not to other, similar stimuli. A reinforcement schedule in which a reinforcer is delivered for the first response that occurs after a preset time interval has elapsed. A classically conditioned dislike for and avoidance of a particular food that develops when an organism becomes ill after eating the food. Skinner's term for an actively emitted (or voluntary) behavior that operates on the environment to produce consequences. The tendency of an animal to revert to instinctive behaviors that can interfere with the performance of an operantly conditioned response. Learning principle, proposed by Thorndike, in which responses followed by a satisfying effect become strengthened and are more likely to recur in a particular situation, while responses followed by a dissatisfying effect are weakened and less likely to recur in a particular situation. The natural stimulus that reflexively elicits a response without the need for prior learning. A reinforcement schedule in which a reinforcer is delivered for the first response that occurs after an average time interval, which varies unpredictably from trial to trial. A procedure in which a conditioned stimulus from one learning trial functions as the unconditioned stimulus in a new conditioning trial; the second conditioned stimulus comes to elicit the conditioned response, even though it has never been directly paired with the unconditioned stimulus. In learning theory, the idea that an organism is innately predisposed to form associations between certain stimuli and responses. The unlearned, reflexive response that is elicited by an unconditioned stimulus. A stimulus or event that is naturally or inherently reinforcing for a given species, such as food, water, or other biological necessities. The occurrence of a learned response not only to the original stimulus but to other, similar stimuli as well. The experimental apparatus invented by B. F. Skinner to study the relationship between environmental events and active behaviors. A situation in which a response is followed by the addition of a reinforcing stimulus, increasing the likelihood that the response will be repeated in similar situations. The basic learning process that involves repeatedly pairing a neutral stimulus with a response-producing stimulus until the neutral stimulus elicits the same response. A situation in which an operant is followed by the presentation or addition of an aversive stimulus; also called punishment by application. The learned, reflexive response to a conditioned stimulus. The process of learning associations between environmental events and behavioral responses. The reappearance of a previously extinguished conditioned response after a period of time without exposure to the conditioned stimulus. A situation in which a response results in the removal of, avoidance of, or escape from a punishing stimulus, increasing the likelihood that the response will be repeated in similar situations. An individual's psychological and physiological response to what is actually a fake treatment or drug; also called placebo effect. Learning that occurs through observing the actions of others. Neurons that activate both when an action is performed and when the same action is perceived. A reinforcement schedule in which a reinforcer is delivered after a fixed number of responses has occurred. A situation in which the occurrence of a particular response is only sometimes followed by a reinforcer. School of psychology and theoretical viewpoint that emphasizes the study of observable behaviors, especially as they pertain to the process of learning. The delivery of a reinforcer according to a preset pattern based on the number of responses or the time interval between responses. Tolman's term for learning that occurs in the absence of reinforcement but is not behaviorally demonstrated until a reinforcer becomes available. A phenomenon in which exposure to inescapable and uncontrollable aversive events produces passive behavior. The occurrence of a stimulus or event following a response that increases the likelihood of that response being repeated. The operant conditioning procedure of selectively reinforcing successively closer approximations of a goal behavior until the goal behavior is displayed. A formerly neutral stimulus that acquires the capacity to elicit a reflexive response. A schedule of reinforcement in which every occurrence of a particular response is followed by a reinforcer. A reinforcement schedule in which a reinforcer is delivered after an average number of responses, which varies unpredictably from trial to trial. A process that produces a relatively enduring change in behavior or knowledge as a result of past experience. A situation in which an operant is followed by the removal or subtraction of a reinforcing stimulus; also called punishment by removal. A stimulus or event that has acquired reinforcing value by being associated with a primary reinforcer; also called a secondary reinforcer. The phenomenon in which behaviors that are conditioned using partial reinforcement are more resistant to extinction than behaviors that are conditioned using continuous reinforcement. |
Albert Bandura (b. 1925) American psychologist who experimentally investigated observational learning, emphasizing the role of cognitive factors. (p. 215)
John Garcia (b. 1917) American psychologist who experimentally demonstrated the learning of taste aversions in animals, a finding that challenged several basic assumptions of classical conditioning. (p. 194)
Ivan Pavlov (1849–
Robert A. Rescorla (b. 1940) American psychologist who experimentally demonstrated the involvement of cognitive processes in classical conditioning. (p. 192)
Martin Seligman (b. 1942) American psychologist who is best known for his theory of learned helplessness and for founding the modern positive psychology movement (see Chapter 1). (pp. 195, 212)
B. F. Skinner (1904–
Edward L. Thorndike (1874–
Edward C. Tolman (1898–
John B. Watson (1878–