Psychological Disorders
KEY POINTS
Introduction: Understanding Psychological Disorders
Distinguishing “normal” from “abnormal” behavior involves consideration of many different factors, including cultural norms. Psychopathology refers to the scientific study of the origins, symptoms, and development of psychological disorders.
A psychological disorder, or mental disorder, is a pattern of behavioral or psychological symptoms that causes significant personal distress and/or impairs the ability to function.
The diagnostic criteria for specific psychological disorders are described in DSM-5, which has been criticized for gender bias, cultural bias, and for pathologizing normal behavior and experiences.
The prevalence of psychological disorders is much higher than had previously been thought. According to one comprehensive survey, approximately one in two Americans will experience a psychological disorder at some point in their lifetimes, and approximately one in four Americans has experienced the symptoms of a psychological disorder in the previous year. Comorbidity is common, meaning that many people are diagnosed with more than one disorder.
Fear and Trembling: Anxiety Disorders, Posttraumatic Stress Disorder, and Obsessive–
In contrast to normal anxiety, anxiety disorders consist of irrational and uncontrollable feelings that are unreasonably intense, frequent, persistent, and disruptive.
Generalized anxiety disorder (GAD) and panic disorder are characterized by intense anxiety that is not triggered by a specific stimulus. Generalized anxiety disorder involves a constant, persistent state of anxiety. Panic disorder involves sudden episodes of extreme, intense anxiety, which are called panic attacks. Agoraphobia is fear of suffering a panic attack or other embarrassing symptoms in a public or inescapable situation.
The phobias involve intense and irrational fear, and avoidance of the feared object or situation. Important forms of phobias include specific phobia and social anxiety disorder. Learning theories and evolved biological predispositions have been offered as explanations of the development of phobias.
Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) develops in response to an extreme psychological or physical trauma. Symptoms include frequent intrusive memories of the trauma, avoidance of stimuli and situations associated with the event; negative changes in thoughts, moods, and emotions, and a persistent state of heightened physical arousal.
Obsessive-compulsive disorder is a disorder in which a person’s life is dominated by repetitive thoughts (obsessions) and actions (compulsions). Biological factors that have been implicated in obsessive–
Disordered Moods and Emotions: Depressive and Bipolar Disorders
The depressive and bipolar disorders, also called affective disorders, involve serious, persistent disturbances in emotions that cause psychological discomfort and/or impair the ability to function.
The symptoms of major depressive disorder include negative emotions, extreme pessimism, thoughts of suicide, cognitive impairment, lack of motivation, and sleep disruption for a period of two weeks or longer. Persistent depressive disorder is a chronic form of depression that is often less severe than major depressive disorder.
Major depressive disorder is the most common psychological disorder. Left untreated, major depressive disorder may recur and become progressively more severe. Seasonal affective disorder (SAD) generally occurs with the onset of the fall and winter months, and is associated with lesser amounts of sunlight.
Bipolar disorder usually involves periods of depression alternating with manic episodes. A milder form of bipolar disorder is cyclothymic disorder. Bipolar disorder is less common than major depressive disorder.
Genetics, brain chemistry, and stress have all been implicated in the depressive disorders and bipolar disorders. The neurotransmitters serotonin and norepinephrine have been implicated in major depressive disorder. Another neurotransmitter, glutamate, may be involved in bipolar disorder.
Eating Disorders: Anorexia, Bulimia, and Binge-Eating Disorder
Eating disorders are serious and maladaptive disturbances in eating behavior. Anorexia nervosa is defined by the refusal to maintain a normal body weight, an irrational fear of gaining weight, and distorted perceptions about body size.
Bulimia nervosa involves episodes of bingeing and purging. People with this eating disorder typically maintain a normal body weight. Binge-eating disorder involves episodes of bingeing without purging.
Eating disorders are more common in females than males. Factors that contribute to the development of eating disorders include genetics and disruptions of neurotransmitters and other chemical signals that normally regulate eating behavior. Cultural attitudes also contribute to eating disorders.
Personality Disorders: Maladaptive Traits
Personality disorders are characterized by inflexible, maladaptive patterns of thoughts, emotions, behavior, and interpersonal functioning. These traits are stable over time and across situations, and deviate from the social and behavioral expectations of the individual’s culture.
Personality disorders are grouped into three clusters: the odd, eccentric cluster; the dramatic, emotional, erratic cluster; and the anxious, fearful cluster.
Antisocial personality disorder is characterized by a pervasive pattern of disregarding and violating the rights of others. People with this personality disorder habitually deceive and manipulate others for their own gain. A history of substance abuse, arrests, and other irresponsible behaviors is common. Multiple factors seem to be involved in the development of antisocial personality disorder.
Borderline personality disorder is characterized by instability of interpersonal relationships, self-image, and emotions. Mood swings, impulsive actions, self-destructive tendencies, and substance abuse are common features. Factors that seem to contribute to the development of this disorder include parental neglect or abuse during childhood.
The Dissociative Disorders: Fragmentation of the Self
Dissociative experiences involve a disruption in awareness, memory, and personal identity. In the dissociative disorders, however, dissociative experiences are extreme, frequent, and disruptive.
Dissociative amnesia is characterized by the inability to recall important information, an inability that is not due to a medical condition and that cannot be explained by ordinary forgetfulness. Some cases of dissociative amnesia involve dissociative fugue, which is amnesia with sudden, unexplained travel away from home.
Dissociative identity disorder (DID) involves memory gaps and the presence of two or more distinct identities. Some psychologists are skeptical of dissociative identity disorder. According to one theory, DID is caused by trauma in childhood and represents an extreme form of coping through dissociation.
Schizophrenia: A Different Reality
Schizophrenia is a psychological disorder that involves severely distorted beliefs, perceptions, and thought processes.
The positive symptoms of schizophrenia represent excesses in normal functioning. They include delusions, hallucinations, and severely disorganized thought processes, speech, and behavior. Negative symptoms reflect deficits or decreases in normal functioning. They include flat affect, alogia, and avolition.
The course of schizophrenia is highly variable. Schizophrenia becomes chronic in about one-half of the people who experience a schizophrenic episode. About one-quarter recover completely, and about one-quarter experience recurrent episodes but are able to function with minimal impairment.
Family, twin, and adoption studies have shown that genetics contributes to the development of schizophrenia. However, studies of identical twins demonstrate that nongenetic factors play at least an equal role in the development of schizophrenia. Non-inherited genetic factors are probably involved in schizophrenia, as researchers have found that genetic mutations are much more common in people with schizophrenia. Bipolar disorder and schizophrenia seem to share some common genetic markers. Although genetics is clearly implicated in the development of schizophrenia, no specific gene or pattern of genetic variation has been found to be clearly predictive of schizophrenia. The risk of schizophrenia is higher in the offspring of older fathers.
According to the dopamine hypothesis, excess dopamine in the brain may be associated with schizophrenia. Newer hypotheses also implicate the neurotransmitters glutamate and adenosine in schizophrenia. Along with abnormal brain chemistry, abnormalities in brain structure and function have been identified as factors associated with schizophrenia. Environmental factors that may be involved in schizophrenia include exposure to a virus during prenatal development and a psychologically unhealthy family environment. Adopted children who were genetically at risk to develop schizophrenia were found to be less likely to develop the disorder when raised in a psychologically healthy family.
Match each of the terms on the left with its definition on the right. Click on the term first and then click on the matching definition. As you match them correctly they will move to the bottom of the activity.
agoraphobia anorexia nervosa antisocial personality disorder anxiety anxiety disorders binge-eating disorder bipolar disorder borderline personality disorder bulimia nervosa compulsions cyclothymic disorder delusion dissociative amnesia dissociative disorders dissociative experience dissociative fugue dissociative identity disorder (DID) DSM-5 eating disorder generalized anxiety disorder (GAD) hallucination major depressive disorder manic episode negative symptoms obsessions obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) panic attack panic disorder persistent depressive disorder personality disorder phobia positive symptoms posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) psychological disorder or mental disorder psychopathology schizophrenia seasonal affective disorder (SAD) social anxiety disorder specific phobia | A persistent and irrational fear of a specific object, situation, or activity. A dissociative disorder involving extensive memory disruptions along with the presence of two or more distinct identities, or "personalities"; formerly called multiple personality disorder. A type of dissociative amnesia involving sudden and unexpected travel away from home, extensive amnesia, and identity confusion. Repetitive behaviors or mental acts that a person feels driven to perform in order to prevent or reduce anxiety and distress, or to prevent a dreaded event or situation. A pattern of behavioral and psychological symptoms that causes significant personal distress, impairs the ability to function in one or more important areas of life, or both. An unpleasant emotional state characterized by physical arousal and feelings of tension, apprehension, and worry. A category of psychological disorders in which extreme and frequent disruptions of awareness, memory, and personal identity impair the ability to function. A mood disorder involving periods of incapacitating depression alternating with periods of extreme euphoria and excitement; formerly called manic depression. Repeated, intrusive, and uncontrollable irrational thoughts or mental images that cause extreme anxiety and distress. Inflexible, maladaptive patterns of thoughts, emotions, behavior, and interpersonal functioning that are stable over time and across situations, and that deviate from the expectations of the individual's culture. In schizophrenia, symptoms that reflect excesses or distortions of normal functioning, including delusions, hallucinations, and disorganized thoughts and behavior. An anxiety disorder characterized by excessive, global, and persistent symptoms of anxiety; also called free-floating anxiety. A break or disruption in consciousness during which awareness, memory, and personal identity become separated or divided. An anxiety disorder in which the person experiences frequent and unexpected panic attacks. Disorder characterized by the presence of intrusive, repetitive, and unwanted thoughts (obsessions) and repetitive behaviors or mental acts that an individual feels driven to perform (compulsions). A false or distorted perception that seems vividly real to the person experiencing it. An excessive, intense, and irrational fear of a specific object, situation, or activity that is actively avoided or endured with marked anxiety. An anxiety disorder involving the extreme and irrational fear of being embarrassed, judged, or scrutinized by others in social situations. A disorder triggered by exposure to a highly traumatic event which results in recurrent, involuntary, and intrusive memories of the event; avoidance of stimuli and situations associated with the event; negative changes in thoughts, moods, and emotions; and a persistent state of heightened physical arousal. A mood disorder characterized by extreme and persistent feelings of despondency, worthlessness, and hopelessness, causing impaired emotional, cognitive, behavioral, and physical functioning. The scientific study of the origins, symptoms, and development of psychological disorders. An anxiety disorder involving extreme fear of experiencing a panic attack or other embarrassing or incapacitating symptoms in a public situation where escape is impossible and help is unavailable. A sudden episode of extreme anxiety that rapidly escalates in intensity. A psychological disorder in which the ability to function is impaired by severely distorted beliefs, perceptions, and thought processes. An eating disorder characterized by binges of extreme overeating without use of self-induced vomiting or other inappropriate measures to purge the excessive food. A disorder involving chronic feelings of depression that is often less severe than major depressive disorder. A dissociative disorder involving the partial or total inability to recall important personal information. A category of mental disorders characterized by severe disturbances in eating behavior. A personality disorder characterized by instability of interpersonal relationships, self-image, and emotions, and marked impulsivity. A mood disorder characterized by moderate but frequent mood swings that are not severe enough to qualify as bipolar disorder. A personality disorder characterized by a pervasive pattern of disregarding and violating the rights of others; such individuals are also often referred to as psychopaths or sociopaths. Abbreviation for the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition; the book published by the American Psychiatric Association that describes the specific symptoms and diagnostic guidelines for different psychological disorders. A category of psychological disorders in which extreme anxiety is the main diagnostic feature and causes significant disruptions in the person's cognitive, behavioral, or interpersonal functioning. A sudden, rapidly escalating emotional state characterized by extreme euphoria, excitement, physical energy, and rapid thoughts and speech. A falsely held belief that persists despite compelling contradictory evidence. In schizophrenia, symptoms that reflect defects or deficits in normal functioning, including flat affect, alogia, and avolition. An eating disorder characterized by binges of extreme overeating followed by self-induced vomiting, misuse of laxatives, or other inappropriate methods to purge the excessive food and prevent weight gain. An eating disorder characterized by excessive weight loss, an irrational fear of gaining weight, and distorted body self-perception. A mood disorder in which episodes of depression typically occur during the fall and winter and subside during the spring and summer. |