Introduction and Research Methods
KEY POINTS
Introduction: What Is Psychology?
Psychology is defined as the scientific study of behavior and mental processes. The four goals of psychology are to describe, explain, predict, and influence human behavior and mental processes.
Early philosophers, such as Aristotle and Descartes, used logic and intuition to understand psychological topics. Later, the discoveries of physiologists demonstrated that scientific methods could be applied to psychological topics.
Wilhelm Wundt, a German physiologist, is credited with founding psychology as an experimental science in 1879. Wundt’s student, Edward B. Titchener, established structuralism, the first school of psychology. The structuralists used introspection to try to identify the structures of conscious experiences.
William James founded and promoted psychology in the United States. James established functionalism, a school of psychology that emphasized the adaptive role of behavior. James’s students, G. Stanley Hall and Mary Whiton Calkins, were two important figures in early American psychology. Margaret Floy Washburn was the first woman and Francis C. Sumner was the first African American to be awarded a Ph.D. in psychology.
Sigmund Freud established psychoanalysis as a theory of personality and form of psychotherapy. Psychoanalysis emphasized the role of unconscious conflicts in determining behavior and personality.
Behaviorism was based on Ivan Pavlov’s research and emerged in the early 1900s. Behaviorism was first championed by John B. Watson and further developed by B. F. Skinner. Behaviorism rejected the study of mental processes and emphasized the study of observable behavior, especially the principles of learning.
Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow promoted humanistic psychology, which emphasized psychological growth and the importance of choice in human behavior.
Contemporary Psychology
Psychology has become progressively more diverse as a science. Topics can be approached from several different perspectives, which include the biological, psychodynamic, behavioral, humanistic, positive psychology, cognitive, cross-cultural, and evolutionary psychology perspectives.
Important specialty areas in psychology include biological, clinical, cognitive, counseling, educational, experimental, developmental, health, industrial/organizational, personality, social psychology, and applied psychology. Psychiatry is a medical specialty. Clinical psychologists and psychiatrists differ in their training and credentials.
The Scientific Method
Psychology is based on empirical evidence. Psychologists are trained in the scientific method, which has four steps: (1) generate a hypothesis that can be tested empirically, (2) design the study and collect the data, (3) analyze the data and draw conclusions, and (4) report the findings. Variables must be operationally defined.
Research methods include descriptive and experimental methods. Statistics are used to analyze the data and to determine whether findings are statistically significant. Meta-analysis can be used to combine and analyze data from multiple studies on a single topic. Reporting the results of a study allows other researchers to replicate the study.
As research findings accumulate from individual studies, theories or models develop to explain the different findings on a related topic. Theories are tools for understanding and explaining behavior and mental processes. Theories can evolve and change as new evidence emerges.
Descriptive Research
Descriptive research is used to observe and describe behavior. Naturalistic observation is used to detect behavior patterns as they exist in their natural settings. A case study involves intensive study of a single subject or a small group of subjects.
Surveys, questionnaires, and interviews are administered to a sample of the larger group to be investigated. For results to be generalizable to the larger population, the sample must be a representative sample. Participants are usually chosen through random selection.
Correlational studies investigate how strongly two factors are related to each other. The relationship is expressed in terms of a correlation coefficient. A positive correlation indicates that two factors vary in the same direction, whereas a negative correlation indicates that two factors vary in opposite directions.
Even when two factors are strongly related, conclusions cannot be drawn about causality because a third factor may actually be responsible for the association. However, correlational evidence can be used to identify important relationships and to make meaningful predictions.
Experimental Research
Experimental research can demonstrate a cause-and-effect relationship between one variable and another. An experiment involves manipulating the independent variable, then measuring what changes occur in the dependent variable. Researchers strive to anticipate and control for the unwanted influences of confounding variables.
An experiment investigating the testing effect used random assignment of the participants to the experimental group or a control group.
In the experiment testing whether ginkgo biloba improved memory and other mental abilities, the control group received a placebo. In experiments testing the therapeutic effectiveness of a treatment or procedure, it is important to determine if the placebo effect or practice effect contributed to the observed changes. The ginkgo experiment also showed how using the double-blind technique helps guard against the influence of inadvertent demand characteristics.
Not all questions can be studied experimentally. Experiments are sometimes criticized for using artificial laboratory conditions. Although not a true experiment, a natural experiment can measure the impact of a naturally occurring event on subjects.
Brain-imaging technology is used in some descriptive studies and experiments. PET scans and fMRI scans reveal which brain areas are active during a task. MRI scans produce detailed images of the brain’s structures. Limitations of brain-imaging research include focusing on simple behaviors and small numbers of participants.
Ethics in Psychological Research
All psychological research is subject to regulations contained in an ethical code developed by the American Psychological Association. For research with human subjects, the ethical code requires informed consent and voluntary participation. Student participants must be given alternatives to participating in research. Deceptive techniques can be used only under specific conditions. Records are kept confidential, and participants are to be debriefed and allowed to learn more about the study.
Comparative psychology studies the behavior of different animal species. Research with animal subjects is governed by an ethical code developed by the American Psychological Association as well as state and federal regulations.
Match each of the terms on the left with its definition on the right. Click on the term first and then click on the matching definition. As you match them correctly they will move to the bottom of the activity.
psychology structuralism functionalism psychoanalysis (in psychotherapy) behaviorism humanistic psychology neuroscience positive psychology culture cross-cultural psychology ethnocentrism individualistic cultures collectivistic cultures evolutionary psychology psychiatry scientific method empirical evidence hypothesis variable operational definition statistics statistically significant meta-analysis replicate theory pseudoscience confirmation bias descriptive research naturalistic observation case study survey sample representative sample random selection correlational study correlation coefficient positive correlation negative correlation experimental research independent variable dependent variable confounding variable random assignment control group (control condition) experimental group (experimental condition) testing effect double-blind technique demand characteristics placebo placebo effect natural experiment critical thinking positron emission tomography (PET scan) magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) comparative psychology | The branch of psychology that studies the behavior of different animal species. A tentative statement about the relationship between two or more variables; a testable prediction or question. The process of assigning participants to experimental conditions so that all participants have an equal chance of being assigned to any of the conditions or groups in the study. An experimental control in which neither the participants nor the researchers interacting with the participants are aware of the group or condition to which the participants have been assigned. School of psychology and theoretical viewpoint that emphasizes each person’s unique potential for psychological growth and self-direction. A precise description of how the variables in a study will be manipulated or measured. A method of investigation used to demonstrate cause-and-effect relationships by purposely manipulating one factor thought to produce change in another factor. A questionnaire or interview designed to investigate the opinions, behaviors, or characteristics of a particular group. A noninvasive imaging technique that produces highly detailed images of the body’s structures and tissues, using electromagnetic signals generated by the body in response to magnetic fields. The attitudes, values, beliefs, and behaviors shared by a group of people and communicated from one generation to another. The scientific study of behavior and mental processes. In an experiment, the group of participants who are exposed to all experimental conditions, including the independent variable. A selected segment of the population used to represent the group that is being studied.; a subset of a population. The systematic observation and recording of behaviors as they occur in their natural setting. Verifiable evidence that is based upon objective observation, measurement, and/or experimentation. A mathematical indication that research results are not very likely to have occurred by chance. Any change attributed to a person’s beliefs and expectations rather than an actual drug, treatment, or procedure. A factor or variable other than the ones being studied that, if not controlled, could affect the outcome of an experiment; also called an extraneous variable. A finding that two factors vary systematically in opposite directions, one increasing as the other decreases. The study of positive emotions and psychological states, positive individual traits, and the social institutions that foster positive individuals and communities. The factor that is observed and measured for change in an experiment, thought to be influenced by the independent variable; also called the outcome variable. Early school of psychology that emphasized studying the purpose, or function, of behavior and mental experiences. To repeat or duplicate a scientific study in order to increase confidence in the validity of the original findings. A numerical indication of the magnitude and direction of the relationship (the correlation) between two variables. The tendency to seek out evidence that confirms an existing belief while ignoring evidence that might contradict or undermine the belief. A factor that can vary, or change, in ways that can be observed, measured, and verified. The study of the nervous system, especially the brain. A tentative explanation that tries to integrate and account for the relationship of various findings and observations. The purposely manipulated factor thought to produce change in an experiment; also called the treatment variable. An invasive imaging technique that provides color-coded images of brain activity by tracking the brain’s use of a radioactively tagged compound, such as glucose, oxygen, or a drug. Medical specialty area focused on the diagnosis, treatment, causes, and prevention of mental and behavioral disorders. In an experiment, the group of participants who are exposed to all experimental conditions, except the independent variable; the group against which changes in the experimental group are compared. A noninvasive imaging technique that uses magnetic fields to map brain activity by measuring changes in the brain’s blood flow and oxygen levels. Fake or false science that makes claims based on little or no scientific evidence. Branch of psychology that studies the effects of culture on behavior and mental processes. Early school of psychology that emphasized studying the most basic components, or structures, of conscious experiences. Scientific procedures that involve systematically observing behavior in order to describe the relationship among behaviors and events. School of psychology and theoretical viewpoint that emphasizes the study of observable behaviors, especially as they pertain to the process of learning. Cultures that emphasize the needs and goals of the individual over the needs and goals of the group. The finding that practicing retrieval of information from memory produces better retention than restudying the same information for an equivalent amount of time. The application of principles of evolution, including natural selection, to explain psychological processes and phenomena. A study investigating the effects of a naturally occurring event on the research participants. A research strategy that allows the precise calculation of how strongly related two factors are to each other. A finding that two factors vary systematically in the same direction, increasing or decreasing together. A type of psychotherapy originated by Sigmund Freud in which free association, dream interpretation, and analysis of resistance and transference are used to explore repressed or unconscious impulses, anxieties, and internal conflicts. A selected segment that very closely parallels the larger population being studied on relevant characteristics. A branch of mathematics used by researchers to organize, summarize, and interpret data. In a research study, subtle cues or signals expressed by the researcher that communicate the kind of response or behavior that is expected from the participant. A set of assumptions, attitudes, and procedures that guide researchers in creating questions to investigate, in generating evidence, and in drawing conclusions. An intensive study of a single individual or small group of individuals. Cultures that emphasize the needs and goals of the group over the needs and goals of the individual. A fake substance, treatment, or procedure that has no known direct effects. A statistical technique that involves combining and analyzing the results of many research studies on a specific topic in order to identify overall trends. The active process of minimizing preconceptions and biases while evaluating evidence, determining the conclusions that can reasonably be drawn from evidence, and considering alternative explanations for research findings or other phenomena. Process in which subjects are selected randomly from a larger group such that every group member has an equal chance of being included in the study. The belief that one’s own culture or ethnic group is superior to all others and the related tendency to use one’s own culture as a standard by which to judge other cultures. |
Wilhelm Wundt (1832–
Edward B. Titchener (1867–
William James (1842–
Charles Darwin (1809–
G. Stanley Hall (1844–
Mary Whiton Calkins (1863–
Margaret Floy Washburn (1871–
Francis C. Sumner (1895–
Kenneth Bancroft Clark (1914–
Sigmund Freud (1856–
Ivan Pavlov (1849–
John B. Watson (1878–
B. F. Skinner (1904–
Carl Rogers (1902–
Abraham Maslow (1908–