Motivation and Emotion
KEY POINTS
Introduction: Motivation and Emotion
Motivation refers to the forces that act on or within an organism to initiate and direct behavior. Three characteristics associated with motivation are activation, persistence, and intensity. Motivation is closely tied to emotion—we may be motivated to achieve certain emotions, and emotions may motivate us to take action.
During the twentieth century, many psychologists tried to develop general theories of motivation, but each model was too limited to explain all motivated behavior.
Instinct theories of motivation, inspired by evolutionary theory, were limited in that they described and labeled behaviors but did not explain them.
According to drive theories, behavior is motivated by the need to maintain homeostasis. Drive theories could not account for psychological motives or motives that are not related to a drive, or unmet need.
According to incentive theories, behavior is motivated by external rewards.
Arousal theory is based on the notion that people are motivated o maintain an optimal level of arousal, which can vary from one person to another. People who are high in sensation seeking seek high levels of arousal.
Humanistic theories of motivation were based on the idea that people are motivated to achieve their highest potential.
Hunger and Eating
Hunger is a biological motive, but eating behavior is also influenced by psychological, social, and cultural factors.
Food provides glucose, the main source of the body’s energy, which is regulated by insulin. Excess glucose is stored in adipose tissue. The basal metabolic rate (BMR) is the rate at which your body uses energy for vital body functions. Energy homeostasis helps people maintain their baseline body weight, which tends to remain stable over time unless calorie intake consistently exceeds or falls short of energy expenditure.
Physiological factors that are correlated with eating are changes in glucose, insulin, ghrelin, body temperature, and metabolism. Psychological factors that trigger eating behavior include classically conditioned stimuli and foods that, through operant conditioning and reinforcement, have acquired a positive incentive value. Satiation signals include cholecystokinin (CCK) and other physiological signals, as well as sensory-specific satiety.
Chemical signals that regulate body weight and help maintain a stable body weight over time include leptin, insulin, neuropeptide Y, and ghrelin. These factors are part of a complex feedback loop that also involves the hypothalamus in the brain that influence appetite and metabolism so that body weight remains largely stable over time, as described by set-point theory.
The number of overweight people in the United States and other developed countries has steadily increased in the past decades. Body mass index (BMI) is one way to calculate weight status. Someone who is obese has a high BMI and an abnormally high proportion of body fat. Factors involved in becoming overweight include inadequate sleep, the ready availability of foods with a positive incentive value, overeating, the cafeteria diet effect, individual differences in BMR, and sedentary lifestyles.
Obesity leads to many health problems, some of which are life threatening. Several factors contribute to obesity, including genetic susceptibility, leptin resistance, and frequent dieting, which may lead to weight cycling. Obese people tend to have fewer dopamine receptors in their brains than normal-weight individuals, which may lead to compulsive eating to stimulate brain reward centers.
Psychological Needs as Motivators
According to Abraham Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, people must fulfill basic physiological needs before they can be motivated by higher psychological needs, such as self-actualization. Maslow’s model has been very influential, but it lacks empirical support.
Self-determination theory (SDT), developed by Edward Deci and Richard Ryan, is based on the premise that people are motivated to achieve a unified sense of self and integration with others. SDT includes three innate, universal psychological needs: autonomy, competence, and relatedness. Intrinsic motivation and extrinsic motivation are important principles in SDT.
Competence motivation refers to striving to be capable and exercise control, while achievement motivation refers to striving to excel or outperform others. The Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) is one way to measure achievement motivation. Achievement motivation is expressed differently in individualisticand collectivistic cultures.
Emotion
An emotion has three basic components: a subjective experience, a physiological response, and a behavioral or expressive response.
Emotions have many functions, including triggering motivated behavior, and contribute to rational decision making and purposeful behavior. Emotional intelligence is needed to succeed in life. According to evolutionary psychologists, emotions are the product of evolution and help us solve important adaptive problems.
The basic emotions are innate and the product of evolution. Women tend to be more emotionally expressive than men. Emotions can be classified in terms of their degree of activation and pleasantness, and, in collectivistic societies, their level of interpersonal engagement.
Some emotions, such as fear, anger, and happiness, involve arousal of the sympathetic nervous system. The amygdala is a key structure in the brain’s fear circuit, which also involves the thalamus, the cortex, and the hypothalamus. The amygdala can be activated by threatening stimuli before we are consciously aware of the stimulus, an ability that has adaptive survival value.
Facial expressions of the basic emotions are biologically innate, culturally universal, and the result of evolution. However, emotional expression is controlled by cultural display rules. Display rules also vary by gender, with men more likely to mask their emotions than women.
Theories of Emotion: Explaining Emotion
Emotion theories differ in terms of which emotion component is emphasized. The James-Lange theory holds that emotion results from our perception of biological and behavioral responses. Contemporary evidence supporting the James-Lange theory includes neuroscience research demonstrating that we “feel” emotions in our body and the facial feedback hypothesis.
There are two main cognitive theories of emotion. The two-factor theory, proposed by Schachter and Singer, holds that emotion results from applying a cognitive label to feelings of arousal. The cognitive appraisal theory states that emotional responses are triggered by a cognitive evaluation. Emotion researchers today tend to agree that emotions can be triggered in multiple ways and that instinctive emotional responses may not require a conscious cognitive appraisal.
Match each of the terms on the left with its definition on the right. Click on the term first and then click on the matching definition. As you match them correctly they will move to the bottom of the activity.
achievement motivation amygdala anthropomorphism arousal theory basal metabolic rate (BMR) basic emotions body mass index (BMI) cognitive appraisal theory of emotion competence motivation display rules drive drive theories emotion emotional intelligence extrinsic motivation facial feedback hypothesis glucose hierarchy of needs homeostasis humanistic theories of motivation incentive theories instinct theories insulin interpersonal engagement intrinsic motivation James-Lange theory of emotion leptin motivation neuropeptide Y (NPY) obese self-actualization self-determination theory (SDT) self-efficacy sensation seeking set-point theory Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) two-factor theory of emotion | The most fundamental set of emotion categories, which are biologically innate, evolutionarily determined, and culturally universal. Social and cultural regulations governing emotional expression, especially facial expressions. The view that behavior is motivated by the pull of external goals, such as rewards. The degree to which an individual is motivated to experience high levels of sensory and physical arousal associated with varied and novel activities. An almond-shaped cluster of neurons in the brain's temporal lobe, involved in memory and emotional responses, especially fear. The view that behavior is motivated by the desire to reduce internal tension caused by unmet biological needs. The idea that the body monitors and maintains internal states, such as body temperature and energy supplies, at relatively constant levels; in general, the tendency to reach or maintain equilibrium. The beliefs that people have about their ability to meet the demands of a specific situation; feelings of self-confidence. The view that certain human behaviors are innate and due to evolutionary programming. Neurotransmitter found in several brain areas, most notably the hypothalamus, that stimulates eating behavior and reduces metabolism, promoting positive energy balance and weight gain. The desire to direct your behavior toward excelling, succeeding, or outperforming others at some task. A projective personality test, developed by Henry Murray and colleagues, that involves creating stories about ambiguous scenes. The attribution of human traits, motives, emotions, or behaviors to nonhuman animals or inanimate objects. The view that people are motivated to maintain a level of arousal that is optimal--neither too high nor too low. Condition characterized by excessive body fat and a body mass index equal to or greater than 30.0. Defined by Maslow as a person's "full use and exploitation of talents, capacities, and potentialities." A complex psychological state that involves a subjective experience, a physiological response, and a behavioral or expressive response. A need or internal motivational state that activates behavior to reduce the need and restore homeostasis. Maslow's hierarchical division of motivation into levels that progress from basic physical needs to psychological needs to self-fulfillment needs. The theory that emotional responses are triggered by a cognitive evaluation. Simple sugar that provides energy and is primarily produced by the conversion of carbohydrates and fats; commonly called blood sugar. The theory that emotions arise from the perception of body changes. Schachter and Singer's theory that emotion is the interaction of physiological arousal and the cognitive label that we apply to explain the arousal. Emotion dimension reflecting the degree to which emotions involve a relationship with another person or other people. Hormone produced by the pancreas that regulates blood levels of glucose and signals the hypothalamus, regulating hunger and eating behavior. The desire to engage in tasks that are inherently satisfying and enjoyable, novel, or optimally challenging; the desire to do something for its own sake. Hormone produced by fat cells that signals the hypothalamus, regulating hunger and eating behavior. A numerical scale indicating adult height in relation to weight; calculated as (703 3 weight in pounds)/(height in inches)2. The capacity to understand and manage your own emotional experiences and to perceive, comprehend, and respond appropriately to the emotional responses of others. External factors or influences on behavior, such as rewards, consequences, or social expectations. The desire to direct your behavior toward demonstrating competence and exercising control in a situation. Theory that proposes that humans and other animals have a natural or optimal body weight, called the set-point weight, that the body defends from becoming higher or lower by regulating feelings of hunger and body metabolism. When the body is at rest, the rate at which it uses energy for vital functions, such as heartbeat and respiration. Deci and Ryan's theory that optimal human functioning can occur only if the psychological needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness are satisfied. The view that emphasizes the importance of psychological and cognitive factors in motivation, especially the notion that people are motivated to realize their personal potential. The view that expressing a specific emotion, especially facially, causes the subjective experience of that emotion. The biological, emotional, cognitive, or social forces that activate and direct behavior. |
Walter Cannon (1871–
Charles Darwin (1809–
Edward L. Deci (b. 1942) American psychologist who, along with Richard M. Ryan, developed self-determination theory, which contends that optimal psychological functioning and growth can occur only if the psychological needs of autonomy, competence, and relatedness are satisfied. (p. 327)
Paul Ekman (b. 1934) American psychologist and emotion researcher who is best known for his work in classifying basic emotions, analyzing facial expressions, and demonstrating that basic emotions and facial expressions are culturally universal. (p. 337)
William James (1842–
Abraham Maslow (1908–
Richard M. Ryan (b. 1953) American psychologist who, along with Edward L. Deci, developed self-determination theory, which contends that optimal psychological functioning and growth can occur only if the psychological needs of autonomy, competence, and relatedness are satisfied. (p. 327)