ANSWERS TO SECTION REVIEW SELF-TESTS IIIIIII

1. Traumatic brain injury (TBI)

2. central nervous system (CNS); peripheral nervous system (PNS)

3. cerebrum; forebrain; hemispheres; brainstem

4. inherited; learning

5. Research on embodied behavior proposes that we understand each other not only by listening to words but also by observing gestures and other body language and that we think not only with silent language but also with overt gestures and body language.

1. mentalism; dualism; Materialism

2. natural selection; Charles Darwin

3. minimally conscious state or MCS; persistent vegetative state or PVS

4. In formulating the theory of natural selection, Darwin relied on observation to conclude that living organisms are related and pass traits from parents to offspring. Mendel used experimentation to show that heritable factors underlie phenotypic variation among species.

1. nervous systems

2. nerve net; bilaterally symmetrical; ganglia; chordate

3. cladogram

4. Humans possess the largest brain of all animals relative to body size and the most complex brain structure.

1. common ancestor; chimpanzee

2. hominid; Australopithecus; Homo habilis; Homo erectus

3. encephalization quotient (EQ); counting brain cells (neurons)

4. in any order: climate changes; changes in lifestyle skills; physiological changes; delayed maturation or neoteny

5. Changes in climate may have driven many physical changes in hominids, including the nearly threefold increase in brain size from apes to modern humans. Evidence suggests that each new hominid species appeared after climate changes devastated old environments and produced new ones. Eventually, modern humans evolved adaptability sufficient to allow us to populate almost every climatic region on earth.

1. species-typical behavior

2. culture; memes

3. g; multiple intelligences

4. In comparing different species, a larger brain correlates with more complex behavior. In comparing individuals within a species, brain size and intelligence are only remotely related. Rather, the complexity of different brain regions is related to behavioral abilities. Humans, for example, vary widely in body size and in brain size as well as in having different kinds of intelligence. All of these factors make any simple comparison of individuals’ brain sizes and intelligence impossible.

1. behavior; brain

2. in any order: frontal; temporal; parietal; occipital

3. neuroplasticity

4. white matter; gray matter

5. tracts; nerves

6. Compare your diagram with Figure 2-2B.

1. forebrain; midbrain; hindbrain

2. behavior

3. The forebrain has grown dramatically over the course of vertebrate evolution. But primitive forms have not been discarded and replaced as more complex nervous systems emerged. The forebrain’s growth thus is an elaboration of functions already present in the other brain regions and leads to its functioning on multiple levels.

1. levels of function

2. spinal cord

3. hindbrain; midbrain; diencephalon

4. cerebellum

5. basal ganglia; limbic system

6. allocortex; neocortex; sensory; motor; integrative

7. The forebrain regulates cognitive activity, including thought and memory, and holds ultimate control over movement (behavior).

1. cranial nerves; spinal (peripheral) nerves

2. same

3. head; internal organs and glands

4. The law of Bell and Magendie states that sensory (afferent) spinal nerve fibers are dorsal (in humans, posterior) and motor (efferent) spinal fibers are ventral (in humans, anterior). This law is important because it allows neurologists to predict the location of spinal cord damage accurately according to changes in sensation or movement.

1. ganglia

2. sympathetic; parasympathetic; in opposition

3. The ANS operates largely outside our conscious awareness, whether we are awake or asleep, to regulate the vegetative functions essential to life.

4. numbers and types of neurons and glia and of chemical transmitters

5. microbiome; nutrients; chemicals

6. Psychobiotics are live organisms that, when ingested in adequate amounts, can benefit people with psychiatric illness.

1. in any order: olfactory system; somatic nervous system; ANS; ENS

2. multiple levels of functioning

3. excitation; inhibition

   A-2

4. Any individual’s perceived reality is only a rough approximation of what is actually present. An animal’s representation of the world depends on the nature of the information sent to the animal’s brain.

1. in either order: neurons; 86 billion; glia; 87 billion

2. in either order: exciting; inhibiting

3. in any order: sensory neurons; detect and convey incoming stimuli into the CNS; interneurons; form links between sensory and motor neurons; motor neurons; make muscles move

4. in any order: ependymal cells; astrocytes; microglia; oligodendroglia; Schwann cells; nourishing; removing waste; insulating; supporting; repairing

5. The main obstacle is duplicating the complexity of a mammalian brain and its ability to change (plasticity). Advances in artificial intelligence are bringing increasingly sophisticated robotic technology to fruition.

1. in any order: cell membrane; nucleus; endoplasmic reticulum (or ER); Golgi bodies; microtubules (or tubules); vesicles

2. proteins; in any order: channels; gates; pumps

3. DNA; RNA; protein

4. endoplasmic reticulum (or ER); Golgi bodies; microtubules; exocytosis

5. By using most of the proteins that it makes, a cell enables itself to interact with other cells and to modify their behavior. The collective action of cells mediates behavior.

1. 23; protein

2. alleles; proteins

3. mutation; Down syndrome; trisomy

4. recessive; dominant

5. Selective breeding; Cloning; transgenic

6. Gene methylation or DNA methylation

7. Mendelian genetics concentrates on inheritance patterns—on which genes parents pass to their offspring and offspring pass to succeeding generations. Epigenetics is the study of how the environment and experience can affect the inherited genome.

1. René Descartes

2. stimulation; recording

3. in any order: how to record from the giant axons of the North Atlantic squid; how to use an oscilloscope to measure small changes in voltage; how to craft microelectrodes small enough to place on or in an axon

4. in either order: concentration gradient, from an area of relatively high concentration to an area of lower concentration; voltage gradient, from an area of relatively high charge to an area of lower charge

5. Ion channels in cell membranes may open to facilitate ion movement, close to impede ion movement, or pump ions across the membrane.

1. resting potential; ions

2. semipermeable; negative

3. hyperpolarization; depolarization

4. action potential; nerve impulse

5. Nerve impulses travel more rapidly on myelinated axons because of saltatory conduction: action potentials leap between the nodes separating the glial cells that form the axon’s myelin sheath.

1. excitatory postsynaptic potentials (EPSPs); inhibitory postsynaptic potentials (IPSPs)

2. time; space; integrates

3. cell body; initial segment; axon

4. Some neurons have voltage-sensitive channels on their dendrites that allow the reverse movement of an action potential into the neurons’ dendritic fields.

1. sensory system or sense

2. sensory receptor cell; voltage-sensitive

3. motor; muscles

4. autoimmune; acetylcholine

5. The varieties of membrane channels generate the transmembrane charge, mediate graded potentials, and trigger the action potential.

1. chemical synapses; gap junction

2. experience; learning

3. axodendritic; axosomatic; axomuscular; axoaxonic; axosynaptic; axoextracellular; axosecretory; dendrodendritic

4. dendrite; cell body or soma

5. When an action potential reaches an axon terminal, (1) a chemical transmitter that has been synthesized and stored in the axon terminal (2) is released from the presynaptic membrane into the synaptic cleft. The transmitter (3) diffuses across the cleft and binds to receptors on the postsynaptic membrane. (4) The transmitter is deactivated.

1. synthesis; release; receptor action; inactivation

2. in any order: small-molecule transmitters; peptide transmitters; gaseous transmitters; lipid transmitters

3. in either order: acetate, choline; acetylcholinesterase or AChE

4. lipid; postsynaptic

5. An ionotropic receptor’s pore or channel can be opened or closed to regulate the flow-through of ions, directly effecting rapid and usually excitatory voltage changes on the cell membrane. Metabotropic receptors, which are generally inhibitory and slow acting, activate second messengers to indirectly produce changes in cell function and structure.

1. neurotransmitter; neurotransmitter

2. acetylcholine or ACh; acetylcholine or ACh; acetylcholine or ACh; norepinephrine or NE

3. in either order: serotonin or 5-HT; dopamine or DA

4. in any order: cholinergic; dopaminergic; noradrenergic; serotonergic

5. This idea has been attractive for a long time, because a clear relationship exists between DA loss in the substantia nigra and Parkinson disease and because acetylcholine and norepinephrine are clearly related to somatic and autonomic behaviors. But for other neurotransmitter systems in the brain, establishing clear one-to-one relationships has proved difficult.

1. synapse; learning

2. in either order: habituation; sensitization

3. presynaptic axon terminal; sensory; calcium; less

4. interneurons; potassium or K; calcium ions or Ca²⁺

5. posttraumatic stress disorder or PTSD; sensitization

6. Permanent responses to frequently occurring stimuli are biologically (or behaviorally and/or metabolically) efficient, but if stimuli change suddenly, a lack of flexibility becomes maladaptive.

1. psychoactive drugs; psychopharmacology

2. blood–brain barrier; brain

3. synapses; agonists; antagonists

4. tolerance; sensitization

5. in any order: feces; urine; sweat; breath; breast milk

6. (a) Drug use at home is unlikely to condition drug-taking behavior to familiar home cues, so tolerance is likely to occur. (b) Novel cues in a work setting may enhance conditioning and so sensitize the occasional drug user.

1. in either order: behavioral; psychoactive

2. GABA_A; Cl^– or chloride ion

3. MAO inhibitors; SSRIs

4. endorphins

5. release; reuptake; D₂

6. Psychotropic drugs act on many neurotransmitters, including acetylcholine, anandamide, dopamine, epinephrine, glutamate, norepinephrine, and serotonin.

1. disinhibition theory (also, impulse control); learning; behavioral myopia theory

2. Substance abuse; addiction or substance dependence

3. psychomotor activation; mesolimbic dopamine system

4. females; males

5. Behavioral myopia theory suggests that intoxicated individuals are unusually responsive to local and immediate cues, so the environment excessively influences their behavior, while consequences go ignored.

1. liking (pleasure); tolerance; wanting (craving); sensitization

2. frontal cortex; brainstem; mesolimbic dopamine system (pathways); basal ganglia

3. inheritance; epigenetics

4. drugs; other life experiences

5. A reasonable approach to treatment views drug addiction in the same way as chronic behavioral addictions and medical problems are viewed: as a lifelong challenge for most people.

1. neurohormones; pituitary gland; releasing hormones; brain

2. in either order: steroids; peptides

3. homeostatic; gonadal; glucocorticoids

4. anabolic (or anabolic–androgenic) steroids; muscle mass; masculinizing

5. epinephrine; cortisol

6. The hippocampus is important in ending the stress response by regulating cortisol levels. If cortisol remains elevated by prolonged stress, eventually it damages the hippocampus.

1. in either order: brain function; behavior; any one from among: place learning, matching to place, landmark learning

2. sectioning and staining; multiphoton microscope

3. in any order: brain lesions; brain stimulation; drugs; optogenetics; chemogenetics

4. Brain stimulation methods include using electrical pulses, as in DBS; magnetic fields, as in TMS; chemicals, by administering drugs; or in the transgenic techniques of optogenetics, which employs light, and chemogenetics, which employs synthetic drugs to interact exclusively with designer receptors.

1. in any order: single-cell recording; EEG; ERP; MEG

2. action potentials

3. graded potentials

4. magnetic activity of many neurons; three-dimensional localization of the cell groups generating the measured field

5. EEG is much less expensive than MEG.

1. in either order: computed tomography or CT scan; magnetic resonance imaging or MRI

2. neural connections or fiber pathways; concentrations of brain metabolites

3. brain injury or brain damage

4. CT produces X-ray images of one object from many angles, then uses scanning software to combine them into a three-dimensional image of the brain.

1. in any order: functional magnetic resonance imaging or fMRI; optical tomography or fNIRS; functional positron emission tomography or PET

2. radioactively labeled molecules; neurochemical

3. cerebral blood flow

4. Resting-state images in PET and rs-fMRI can identify abnormalities in brain function. rs-fMRI can also identify functional connections in the resting brain.

1. biochemical; in either order: microdialysis; voltammetry

2. concordance rates

3. DNA; gene expression

4. Epigenetic studies show that life experience can alter gene expression and that these changes are associated with changes in neuronal structure and connectivity. Altered neuronal organization in turn is associated with changes in behavior.

1. in any order: temporal resolution; spatial resolution; degree of invasiveness

2. any one or more: EEG, ERP, and/or fNIRS; inexpensive

   A-4

3. The fundamental goal of neuroscience research is to gain an understanding of brain–behavior relationships.

1. any two in any order: stroke; ADHD; Parkinson disease; schizophrenia

2. whether laboratory animals have the same symptoms that humans do

3. neural bases; treatments

4. Using laboratory animals in research leads to concerns about animal welfare and raises ethical issues about whether animals should be used in research and, if so, in what types of research.

1. behavior

2. neural circuits

3. any three in any order: hormones; sensory experience; injuries; genes

4. Behaviors cannot emerge until the requisite neural structures are sufficiently mature.

1. neural tube

2. neurogenesis; gliogenesis

3. in either order: cell adhesion molecules or CAMs; tropic factors

4. in either order: myelination; synaptic pruning

5. Dynamic changes in frontal lobe structure (morphology) are related to the development of intelligence.

1. independent finger movements or the pincer grasp

2. vocabulary; sound processing

3. Piaget’s stages of cognitive development

4. temporal lobe; basal ganglia

5. Correlation does not prove causation.

1. chemoaffinity hypothesis

2. amblyopia

3. testosterone

4. critical periods or sensitive periods

5. Adolescence is a time of rapid brain change related to pubertal hormones and psychosocial stressors, both of which make the brain vulnerable to disorders.

1. Sensory receptors

2. Receptive; density

3. target in the brain

4. subjective experience of sensation

5. Each modality has many receptors and sends information to the cortex to form topographic maps.

1. retinal ganglion cells or RGCs

2. P or parvocellular; M or magnocellular

3. geniculostriate; tectopulvinar

4. facial agnosia or prosopagnosia

5. The dorsal stream to the parietal lobe processes the visual guidance of movements (the how). The ventral stream to the temporal lobe processes the visual perception of objects (the what).

1. small size

2. photoreceptors; retinal ganglion cells, lateral geniculate neurons, cortical neurons

3. topographic map

4. corpus callosum

5. The fovea is represented by a larger area in the cortex than the visual field’s periphery, and thus there is more processing of foveal information in region V1 than of peripheral information.

1. bars of light

2. temporal

3. trichromatic theory

4. opponent

5. RGCs are excited by one wavelength of light and inhibited by another, producing two pairs of what seem to be color opposites—red versus green and blue versus yellow.

1. hemianopia

2. scotomas

3. monocular blindness

4. optic ataxia

5. Damage to the dorsal stream produces deficits in visually guided movements. Damage to the ventral stream produces deficits in object recognition.

1. air pressure waves or compression waves or sound waves

2. in any order: frequency; amplitude; complexity

3. in any order: loudness; pitch; prosody, quality or timbre

4. temporal

5. Delivery speed, or the number of sound segments that can be analyzed per second, distinguishes speech and musical sounds from other auditory inputs. Nonlanguage sounds faster than 5 segments per second are heard as a buzz, yet we are capable of understanding speech delivered at nearly 30 segments per second. Random or aperiodic sounds are noise.

1. ossicles or, in any order, hammer, anvil, and stirrup

2. inner hair cells; cochlea

3. in either order: basilar; tectorial

4. auditory or cochlear; auditory vestibular or eighth

5. inferior colliculus; medial geniculate nucleus

6. The planum temporale is larger in the left hemisphere, and Heschl’s gyrus is larger in the right. In most people, this anatomical asymmetry correlates to a functional asymmetry: the left temporal cortex analyzes language-related sounds, whereas the right temporal cortex analyzes music-related ones.

1. tonotopic

2. cochlea

3. superior olive; trapezoid body

4. audition for action

   A-5

5. The brain detects a sound’s location via two mechanisms. Neurons in the brainstem (hindbrain) compute the ITD, the time difference in a sound wave’s arrival at each ear. Other neurons in the brainstem compute IID, the difference in sound amplitude (loudness) in each ear.

1. language; music

2. in any order: Broca’s area; supplementary speech area; face area of motor cortex

3. Wernicke’s

4. Broca’s

5. in either order: perfect (or absolute) pitch; amusic or tone deaf

6. Three lines of evidence support the idea that language is innate: the universality of language, the natural acquisition by children, and the presence of syntax in all languages.

1. epigenetic mechanisms

2. left

3. echolocation; sonar

4. Birdsong dialects demonstrate that the songs young birds hear influence how they sing.

1. hierarchy

2. prefrontal; premotor; motor cortex or M1

3. brainstem

4. spinal cord

5. Lower-level functions in the motor hierarchy can continue in the absence of higher-level ones, but the higher levels provide voluntary control over movements. When the brain is disconnected from the spinal cord then, movement can no longer be controlled at will.

1. topographic; homunculus; larger

2. motor map

3. corticospinal; lateral corticospinal; anterior corticospinal

4. trunk; arm; finger

5. muscles; in either order: flexes, extends

6. The motor cortex, M1, is organized into a set of functional categories that encode a movement lexicon, or dictionary. Used in different combinations, these few movements enable more complex movements.

1. basal ganglia; force

2. hyperkinetic; hypokinetic

3. accuracy; skills

4. The cerebellum compares an intended movement with the actual movement, calculates any necessary corrections, and informs the cortex to correct the movement.

1. hapsis; proprioception; nociception

2. posterior; anterior

3. pain gate

4. periaqueductal gray matter or PAG

5. vestibular; balance

6. Without proprioception, sensory information about body location and movement is lost and can be regained by only using vision.

1. primary; secondary

2. apraxia

3. dorsal visual; ventral visual

4. Pain perception does not depend simply on pain sensations but is a construct of the brain.

1. rewarding

2. minimum level of sensory stimulation

3. smell and taste or chemical senses

4. In general, behavior is controlled by neural circuits that are modulated by a wide range of factors.

1. olfactory epithelium

2. flavor

3. pheromones

4. allele of the taste receptor gene TAS2R38; number of taste buds

5. Any given odorant stimulates a unique pattern of receptors, and the summed activity, or pattern of activity, produces our perception of a particular odor.

1. rewards or reinforcers

2. taste aversion learning

3. innate releasing mechanisms or IRMs

4. tasting

5. When two unrelated events are experienced together, they may inadvertently become associated. For example, unexpected pain in the presence of a stranger may lead to a faulty association between the person and the pain.

1. regulatory; nonregulatory

2. hypothalamus

3. in any order: hypothalamus; limbic system; frontal lobes

4. in any order: dorsolateral; orbitofrontal; ventromedial

5. amygdala

6. hormones

7. The limbic system stimulates emotional reactions and species-typical behaviors, whereas the frontal lobes generate the rationale for behavior at the right time and context, taking into account factors such as external events and internal information.

1. in any order: lateral hypothalamus; ventromedial hypothalamus; paraventricular nucleus

2. in either order: hypothalamus; amygdala

3. in either order: organizing; activating

4. osmotic; hypovolemic

5. Variations in epigenetic effects could lead to different architecture and function of the hypothalamus among heterosexuals, homosexuals, and transgender individuals.

1. rewarding

2. wanting; liking

3. in any order: dopamine; opioid; benzodiazepine–GABA

4. Intracranial self-stimulation is a phenomenon whereby animals learn to turn on a stimulating electric current to their brain, presumably because it activates the neural system that underlies reward.

1. circannual; circadian

2. free-running; Zeitgebers

3. any 2: light pollution; jet lag; working swing shifts; working night shifts

4. Circadian rhythm allows us to synchronize our behavior with our body’s metabolic processes—so that we are hungry at optimal times for eating, for example, and tired at optimal sleep times.

1. superchiasmatic nucleus or SCN

2. retinohypothalamic; melanopsin ganglion or photosensitive retinal ganglion

3. shell; chemical; anatomical

4. Experimental evidence suggests that the circadian rhythm can put a time stamp on a behavioral event, rendering it easier to recall at the same time in the circadian cycle that it occurred in previously.

1. in either order: REM, rapid eye movement; NREM, non–rapid eye movement

2. EOG or electrooculogram; EMG or electromyogram; EEG or electroencephalogram

3. five; lengthening

4. everyone; real time

5. Interpreting dreams is difficult because it is always possible that the interpreter will impose his or her own explanation, or spin, on the dreams.

1. biological; restorative; memories

2. Explicit; implicit

3. place cell; NREM

4. microsleep

5. If a memory can be stored during waking, sleep may not be essential for its storage.

1. reticular activating system or RAS; NREM

2. coma

3. REM sleep

4. subcoerulear

5. We have separate neural systems for keeping us awake while we are still (cholinergic) and awake when we move (serotinergic).

1. insomnia; narcolepsy

2. drug-dependent insomnia

3. sleep paralysis; cataplexy

4. REM sleep behavioral disorder or REM without atonia; subcoerulear

5. Orexin is probably only one of many factors related to waking behavior, as animals with narcolepsy can be awake but then collapse into sleep.

1. Pavlovian or classical

2. operant or instrumental

3. implicit; explicit

4. Episodic

5. Memory is not localized to any particular brain circuit or region. Rather, multiple memory circuits vary with the requirements of the memory task.

1. in either order: hippocampus; amygdala

2. basal ganglia

3. Lashley searched for explicit memory in the perceptual and motor systems of his animal subjects using invasive tests designed mostly for implicit memory. Milner studied a patient with medial temporal removal and used behavioral tests of both explicit and implicit memory.

1. in either order: hippocampus; neocortex (or cortex)

2. implicit

3. amygdala

4. consolidation

5. Emotional experiences stimulate hormonal and neurochemical activating systems that stimulate the amygdala. The amygdala in turn modulates the laying down of memory circuits in the rest of the brain.

1. long-term potentiation or LTP; long-term depression or LTD

2. GABAergic or inhibitory

3. in either order: synapse number; neuron number

4. hippocampus

5. behavioral sensitization

6. Plastic changes in neural networks can interfere with behavior, essentially by learning behaviors that interfere with healthy function. Examples are addiction and PTSD.

1. in any order: learn new ways to solve problems; reorganize the brain to do more with less; replace the lost neurons

2. in either order: direct cortical stimulation; deep brain stimulation or DBS

3. neurotrophic

4. Functional improvement after brain injury reflects compensation rather than recovery.

1. in order: attending to; identifying; making meaningful responses to

2. language; flexibility

3. neuron

4. Much of human thought is verbal. Language allows us to categorize information and provides a way to organize our behavior around time.

1. knowledge; cognition

2. temporal; parietal

3. in either order: plan movements; organize behavior over time

4. Mirror

5. Multimodal cortex allows the brain to combine characteristics of stimuli across different sensory modalities, whether we encounter them together or separately.

1. cognitive neuroscience

2. brain connectome

3. cerebellum

4. social interactions

5. theory of mind

6. decision making

7. in any order: understanding others; understanding oneself; self-regulation; social living

1. in either order: spatial behavior; music

2. in either order: controlling voluntary movement sequences; language

3. corpus callosum

4. Because the hemispheres process information differently, they think differently. And the existence of language in the left hemisphere allows it to label computations and thus make inferences that the right cannot.

1. in either order: sex; handedness

2. neural circuits

3. synesthesia

4. Gonadal hormones influence brain development and shape neural circuits in adulthood.

1. g factor or general intelligence; multiple intelligences; convergent and divergent; intelligence A; intelligence B

2. structural; functional

3. any 3, in any order: gyral patterns; cytoarchitectonics; vascular patterns; neurochemistry

4. epigenetic

5. Both fMRI and ERP studies show that the efficiency of prefrontal–parietal circuits is related to standard intelligence measures. “Executive” function is related to gray matter volume in the frontal lobe.

1. complex

2. Consciousness

3. consciousness

4. Movements in which speed is critical, such as hitting a pitched ball, cannot be controlled consciously.

1. brainstem and limbic system; neocortex; dorsal frontal cortex

2. in any order: genetic errors; epigenetic mechanisms; progressive cell death; rapid cell death; loss of neural connections

3. PKU or phenylketonuria

4. subjective

5. Brain pathology can exist without obvious clinical symptoms and clinical symptoms without obvious pathology.

1. any 3 in any order: social, psychological, psychiatric, neurological

2. Epidemiology

3. genetics, neuroimaging

4. in any order: neurosurgical, electrophysiological, pharmacological, behavioral

5. deep brain stimulation or DBS

6. transcranial magnetic stimulation or TMS

7. Classification systems can be revised using new information such as that obtained from genetics and brain imaging.

1. Alzheimer; Parkinson

2. TBI or traumatic brain injury

3. ischemia; stroke

4. loss of cells from the substantia nigra; accumulation of Lewy bodies

5. Aerobic exercise and brain training are strategies for enhancing or stimulating neuroplasticity as we age.

1. in any order: dopamine, glutamate, GABA

2. in either order: temporal; frontal

3. in either order: norepinephrine; serotonin

4. cognitive-behavioral therapy or CBT

5. Many genetic and epigenetic influences contribute to every behavior, including schizophrenia.