12.1 The Nature of Macroeconomics

Macroeconomics differs from microeconomics by focusing on the behavior of the economy as a whole.

Macroeconomic Questions

Table 12-1 lists some typical economic questions from the perspective of microeconomics and from macroeconomics. By comparing the questions, you can begin to get a sense of the difference between microeconomics and macroeconomics.

Table : TABLE 12-1 Microeconomic versus Macroeconomic Questions
Microeconomic Questions Macroeconomic Questions
Should I go to business school or take a job right now? How many people are employed in the economy as a whole this year?
What determines the salary Google offers to Cherie Camajo, a new MBA? What determines the overall salary levels paid to workers in a given year?
What determines the cost to a university or college of offering a new course? What determines the overall level of prices in the economy as a whole?
What government policies should be adopted to make it easier for low-income students to attend college? What government policies should be adopted to promote employment and growth in the economy as a whole?
What determines whether Citibank opens a new office in Shanghai? What determines the overall trade in goods, services, and financial assets between the United States and the rest of the world?

As these questions illustrate, microeconomics focuses on how decisions are made by individuals and firms and the consequences of those decisions. For example, we use microeconomics to determine how much it would cost a university or college to offer a new course, which includes the instructor’s salary, the cost of class materials, and so on. The school can then decide whether to offer the course by weighing the costs and benefits.

Macroeconomics, in contrast, examines the overall behavior of the economy—how the actions of all the individuals and firms in the economy interact to produce a particular economy-wide level of economic performance. For example, macroeconomics is concerned with the general level of prices in the economy and how high or how low it is relative to the general level of prices last year, rather than with the price of one particular good or service.

You might imagine that macroeconomic questions can be answered simply by adding up microeconomic answers. For example, the model of supply and demand introduced in Chapter 3 tells us how the equilibrium price of an individual good or service is determined in a competitive market. So you might think that applying supply and demand analysis to every good and service in the economy, then summing the results, is the way to understand the overall level of prices in the economy as a whole.

But that is incorrect: although basic concepts such as supply and demand are essential to macroeconomics, answering macroeconomic questions requires an additional set of tools and an expanded frame of reference.

Macroeconomics: The Whole Is Greater Than the Sum of Its Parts

345

If you drive on a highway, you probably know what a rubber-necking traffic jam is and why it is so annoying. Someone pulls over to the side of the road, perhaps to fix a flat tire, and, pretty soon, a long traffic jam occurs as drivers slow down to take a look.

What makes it so annoying is that the length of the traffic jam is greatly out of proportion to the minor event that precipitated it. Because some drivers hit their brakes in order to rubber-neck, the drivers behind them must also hit their brakes, those behind them must do the same, and so on. The accumulation of all the individual hitting of brakes eventually leads to a long, wasteful traffic jam as each driver slows down a little bit more than the driver in front of him or her. In other words, each person’s response leads to an amplified response by the next person.

Understanding a rubber-necking traffic jam gives us some insight into one very important way in which macroeconomics differs from microeconomics: many thousands or millions of individual actions compound upon one another to produce an outcome that isn’t simply the sum of those individual actions.

Consider, for example, what macroeconomists call the paradox of thrift: when families and businesses are worried about the possibility of economic hard times, they prepare by cutting their spending. This reduction in spending depresses the economy as consumers spend less and businesses react by laying off workers. As a result, families and businesses may end up worse off than if they hadn’t tried to act responsibly by cutting their spending.

image
The behavior of the macroeconomy is greater than the sum of individual actions and market outcomes.
SFC/Shutterstock

This is a paradox because seemingly virtuous behavior—preparing for hard times by saving more—ends up harming everyone. And there is a flip-side to this story: when families and businesses are feeling optimistic about the future, they spend more today. This stimulates the economy, leading businesses to hire more workers, which further expands the economy. Seemingly profligate behavior leads to good times for all.

A key insight of macroeconomics, then, is that the combined effect of individual decisions can have results that are very different from what any one individual intended, results that are sometimes perverse. The behavior of the macroeconomy is, indeed, greater than the sum of individual actions and market outcomes.

Macroeconomics: Theory and Policy

To a much greater extent than microeconomists, macroeconomists are concerned with questions about policy, about what the government can do to make macroeconomic performance better. This policy focus was strongly shaped by history, in particular by the Great Depression of the 1930s.

In a self-regulating economy, problems such as unemployment are resolved without government intervention, through the working of the invisible hand.

Before the 1930s, economists tended to regard the economy as self-regulating: they believed that problems such as unemployment would be corrected through the working of the invisible hand and that government attempts to improve the economy’s performance would be ineffective at best—and would probably make things worse.

The Great Depression changed all that. The sheer scale of the catastrophe, which left a quarter of the U.S. workforce without jobs and threatened the political stability of many countries created a demand for action. It also led to a major effort on the part of economists to understand economic slumps and find ways to prevent them.

346

According to Keynesian economics, economic slumps are caused by inadequate spending, and they can be mitigated by government intervention.

Monetary policy uses changes in the quantity of money to alter interest rates and affect overall spending.

Fiscal policy uses changes in government spending and taxes to affect overall spending.

In 1936 the British economist John Maynard Keynes (pronounced “canes”) published The General Theory of Employment, Interest, and Money, a book that transformed macroeconomics. According to Keynesian economics, a depressed economy is the result of inadequate spending. In addition, Keynes argued that government intervention can help a depressed economy through monetary policy and fiscal policy. Monetary policy uses changes in the quantity of money to alter interest rates, which in turn affect the level of overall spending. Fiscal policy uses changes in taxes and government spending to affect overall spending.

In general, Keynes established the idea that managing the economy is a government responsibility. Keynesian ideas continue to have a strong influence on both economic theory and public policy: in 2008 and 2009, Congress, the White House, and the Federal Reserve (a quasi-governmental agency that manages U.S. monetary policy) took steps to fend off an economic slump that were clearly Keynesian in spirit, as described in the following Economics in Action.

ECONOMICS in Actionimage

Fending Off Depression

image | interactive activity

In 2008 the world economy experienced a severe financial crisis that was all too reminiscent of the early days of the Great Depression. Major banks teetered on the edge of collapse; world trade slumped. In the spring of 2009, the economic historians Barry Eichengreen and Kevin O’Rourke, reviewing the available data, pointed out that “globally we are tracking or even doing worse than the Great Depression.”

But the worst did not, in the end, come to pass. Figure 12-1 shows one of Eichengreen and O’Rourke’s measures of economic activity, world industrial production, during the Great Depression (the top line) and during the Great Recession (the bottom line). During the first year the two crises were indeed comparable. But fortunately, one year into the Great Recession, world production leveled off and turned around. In contrast, three years into the Great Depression world production continued to fall. Why the difference?

Figure 12.1: FIGURE 12-1 Economic Activity and Industrial Production During the
Great Depression and the Great Recession
image
Data from: Barry Eichengreen and Kevin O’Rourke (2009), “A Tale of Two Depressions.” © VoxEU.org; CPB Netherlands Bureau for Economic Policy Analysis World Trade Monitor.

At least part of the answer is that policy makers responded very differently. During the Great Depression, it was widely argued that the slump should simply be allowed to run its course. Any attempt to mitigate the ongoing catastrophe, declared Joseph Schumpeter—the Austrian-born Harvard economist now famed for his work on innovation—would “leave the work of depression undone.” In the early 1930s, some countries’ monetary authorities actually raised interest rates in the face of the slump, while governments cut spending and raised taxes—actions that, as we’ll see in later chapters, deepened the recession.

347

In the aftermath of the 2008 crisis, by contrast, interest rates were slashed, and a number of countries, the United States included, used temporary increases in spending and reductions in taxes in an attempt to sustain spending. Governments also moved to shore up their banks with loans, aid, and guarantees.

Many of these measures were controversial, to say the least. But most economists believe that by responding actively to the Great Recession—and doing so using the knowledge gained from the study of macroeconomics—governments helped avoid a global economic catastrophe.

Quick Review

  • Microeconomics focuses on decision making by individuals and firms and the consequences of the decisions made. Macroeconomics focuses on the overall behavior of the economy.

  • The combined effect of individual actions can have unintended consequences and lead to worse or better macroeconomic outcomes for everyone.

  • Before the 1930s, economists tended to regard the economy as self-regulating. After the Great Depression, Keynesian economics provided the rationale for government intervention through monetary policy and fiscal policy to help a depressed economy.

Check Your Understanding 12-1

Question 12.1

1. Which of the following questions involve microeconomics, and which involve macroeconomics? In each case, explain your answer.

  1. Why did consumers switch to smaller cars in 2008?

    This is a microeconomic question because it addresses decisions made by consumers about a particular product.

  2. Why did overall consumer spending slow down in 2008?

    This is a macroeconomic question because it addresses consumer spending in the overall economy.

  3. Why did the standard of living rise more rapidly in the first generation after World War II than in the second?

    This is a macroeconomic question because it addresses changes in the overall economy.

  4. Why have starting salaries for students with geology degrees risen sharply of late?

    This is a microeconomic question because it addresses changes in a particular market, in this case the market for geologists.

  5. What determines the choice between rail and road transportation?

    This is a microeconomic question because it addresses choices made by consumers and producers about which mode of transportation to use.

  6. Why did salmon get much cheaper between 1980 and 2000?

    This is a microeconomic question because it addresses changes in a particular market.

  7. Why did inflation fall in the 1990s?

    This is a macroeconomic question because it addresses changes in a measure of the economy’s overall price level.

Question 12.2

2. In 2008, problems in the financial sector led to a drying up of credit around the country: home-buyers were unable to get mortgages, students were unable to get student loans, car-buyers were unable to get car loans, and so on.

  1. Explain how the drying up of credit can lead to compounding effects throughout the economy and result in an economic slump.

    When people can’t get credit to finance their purchases, they will be unable to spend money. This will weaken the economy, and as others see the economy weaken, they will also cut back on their spending in order to save for future bad times. As a result, the credit shortfall will spark a compounding effect through the economy as people cut back their spending, making the economy worse, leading to more cutbacks in spending, and so on.

  2. If you believe the economy is self-regulating, what would you advocate that policy makers do?

    If you believe the economy is self-regulating, then you would advocate doing nothing in response to the slump.

  3. If you believe in Keynesian economics, what would you advocate that policy makers do?

    If you believe in Keynesian economics, you would advocate that policy makers undertake monetary and fiscal policies to stimulate spending in the economy.

Solutions appear at back of book.