Peter the Great (1672–1725), tsar of Russia, transformed his country from a minor state to a major European power. Peter traveled incognito throughout Europe early in his reign, studying a range of subjects. Upon his return to Russia, he implemented dramatic reforms ranging from the speech and appearance of his citizens to the founding of a new modern capital, St. Petersburg. Deeply concerned with what he perceived to be the ignorance of Russians, he enlisted the help of the great German mathematician and philosopher Gottfried Leibniz (1646–1716). Excerpted here is Peter’s appointment of Leibniz, Leibniz’s recommendation to Peter for the edification of his people, and Peter’s explanation of the scientific value of specimens such as the ones that he himself collected and displayed at his Kunstkamera, or “chamber of curiosities.”

We, Peter I, tsar and autocrat of all Russia, etcetera, etcetera, etcetera.

We have most graciously judged it right that Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz, privy councillor in the judicature of the elector and duke of Brunswick-Lueneburg, be also appointed and confirmed as our privy councillor in the judicature, on account of his outstanding good qualities which have been praised to us and which we ourselves have found in him. Since we know that he can be of great help in the development of mathematics and of other arts, in historical research, and in the growth of learning in general, it is our intention to employ him, so that sciences and arts may flourish more and more in our realm. In consideration of the said rank of our privy councillor in the judicature it pleases us to appoint his yearly salary at one thousand Albertus-talers, which are to be paid out to him punctually every year on our behalf; for this we shall issue the necessary orders; his service begins from the date indicated below.

In confirmation whereof we issue these letters under our own signature and with our seal of state affixed.

Given at Karlsbad, November 1, 1712.

(Signed) Peter

(Countersigned) Count Golovkin

The improvement of arts and sciences in a great empire involves:

Equipment consists of books, museums [“curiosity collections”], instruments, and exhibits of works of nature and of human contrivance. . . .

Next to the library comes the museum [“collection of curiosities”], where one should find old and new medals, serving as a source and confirmation of history; remains of Roman, Greek, Hebrew, Chinese, and other antiquity; all kinds of rare objects from the three realms of nature, namely all sorts of mineral stones, ores, plants, insects, and strange animals; also all kinds of works of art — paintings and sculptures; as well as optical, astronomical, architectural, military, nautical, mechanical, and other inventions.

Ignoramuses think that such monsters are born from the action of the devil which is, however, impossible for there is only one creator of all creation, and that is God. And the Evil One has no power over any living creatures. For monsters are the result of internal damage, of fear and the thoughts of the mother during her pregnancy, of which fact there are many examples. For example, when the mother is frightened, hurt or injured in any way the child will be influenced.

READING AND DISCUSSION QUESTIONS