By the summer of 1945, Germany had surrendered and it was clear that the Allies would prevail against the Japanese in the Pacific. What was not clear was how long victory would take and how many lives it would cost. As they made plans for the invasion of the Japanese mainland, American commanders estimated that this final stage of the war would produce a million American casualties and result in the deaths of 10 to 20 million Japanese. It was in this context that President Harry Truman and his advisers decided to drop nuclear weapons on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. The decision was not reached without debate, and it remains controversial to this day. Some scholars believe that Japan was close to surrender even before the bombs were dropped. Others point out that American leaders could have taken a number of intermediate steps before resorting to the use of nuclear weapons. Still others argue that racial animus played a significant role in the decision to use nuclear weapons against Japan. As you read the documents included in this feature, formulate your opinion on this controversy. Were American leaders right to use nuclear weapons against Japan when they did? If so, why? If not, what should they have done instead?