Egyptians understood the pharaoh to be an avatar of the god Horus, the source of law and morality, and the mediator between gods and humans. The pharaoh’s connection with the divine stretched to members of his family, so that his siblings and children were also viewed as divine in some ways. Because of this, a pharaoh often took his sister or half-sister as one of his wives. This concentrated divine blood set the pharaonic family apart from other Egyptians (who did not generally marry close relatives) and allowed the pharaohs to imitate the gods, who in Egyptian mythology often married their siblings. A pharaoh chose one of his wives, often a relative, to be the “Great Royal Wife,” or principal queen.

The familial connection with the divine allowed a handful of women to rule in their own right in Egypt’s long history. We know the names of four female pharaohs, of whom the most famous was Hatshepsut (r. 1479–1458 B.C.E.), the sister and wife of Thutmose II. After he died, she served as regent — adviser and co-ruler — for her young stepson Thutmose III. Hatshepsut sent trading expeditions and sponsored artists and architects, ushering in a period of artistic creativity and economic prosperity. She oversaw the building of one of the world’s great buildings, an elaborate terraced temple at Deir el Bahri, which eventually served as her mortuary temple. Hatshepsut’s status as a powerful female ruler was difficult for Egyptians to conceptualize, and she is often depicted in male dress or with a false beard, thus looking more like the male rulers who were the norm. After her death, Thutmose III tried to destroy all evidence that she had ever ruled, smashing statues and scratching her name off inscriptions, perhaps because of personal animosity and perhaps because he wanted to erase the fact that a woman had once been pharaoh. Only within recent decades have historians and archaeologists begun to (literally) piece together her story.

Though female pharaohs were very rare, many royal women had power through their position as “Great Royal Wives.” The most famous was Nefertiti, the wife of Akhenaten. Her name means “the perfect (or beautiful) woman has come,” and inscriptions also give her many other titles. Nefertiti used her position to spread the new religion of the sun-god Aten.

Together Nefertiti and Akhenaten built a new palace and capital city at Akhetaten, the present Amarna, away from the old centers of power. There they developed the cult of Aten to the exclusion of the traditional deities. Nearly the only literary survival of their religious belief is the “Hymn to Aten,” which declares Aten to be the only god. It describes Nefertiti as “the great royal consort whom he, Akhenaten loves. The mistress of the Two Lands, Upper and Lower Egypt.”

Nefertiti is often shown as being the same size as her husband, and in some inscriptions she is performing religious rituals that would normally have been carried out only by the pharaoh. The exact details of her power are hard to determine, however. An older theory held that her husband removed her from power, though there is also speculation that after his death she may have ruled secretly in her own right under a different name. Her tomb has long since disappeared. In the last decade, individual archaeologists have claimed that several different mummies were Nefertiti, but most scholars dismiss these claims. Because her parentage is unknown, DNA testing such as that done on Tutankhamon’s corpse would not reveal whether any specific mummy was Nefertiti.

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