As Europe moved into a new millennium, much remained unchanged from previous centuries, at least on the surface. The vast majority of Europeans were engaged in agriculture and most were unfree, laboring as serfs on land they did not own and could not leave. The military elite retained their position at the top of the social and political ladder. The Church continued to play a central role in European culture, providing a unifying set of values and beliefs. Nonetheless, a decisive shift had taken place. As the invasions of the ninth century came to an end, a measure of stability and security returned to European society. This stability and the introduction of new agricultural technologies led to increased agricultural production and, with it, accelerating population growth. These developments, in turn, stimulated trade and the revival of urban life. As Europe’s towns and cities grew, they became centers of wealth, power, and culture that traditional landed elites ignored at their peril. The documents included in this chapter explore these complicated and interrelated social, economic, and cultural changes, offering insight into the dynamic forces that shaped life in the High Middle Ages. ■