Teachers Disputing in a Madrasa Although Islamic education relied heavily on memorization of the Qur’an, religious scholars frequently debated the correct interpretation of a particular text. Listening to this lively disputation, the students illustrated in this 1222 book are learning to think critically and creatively. (From The Schefer Magamat, Ms. Arabe 5847, fol. 118v/R. and S. Michaud/akg-