In 1814 the victorious allied powers sought to restore peace and stability in Europe. Led by Metternich of Austria, the conservative powers used intervention and repression as they sought to prevent the spread of subversive ideas and radical changes in politics. After 1815 ideologies of liberalism, nationalism, and socialism all developed to challenge the new order. The growth of these forces culminated in the liberal and nationalistic revolutions of 1848. Monarchies panicked and crumbled in the face of popular uprisings, yet few revolutionary goals were realized. Instead a resurgence of conservative forces crushed revolution across Europe. In the second half of the nineteenth century Italy and Germany became unified nation-states for the first time in history, while Russia undertook a modernization program that culminated in popular uprising and a constitutional monarchy after 1905, in which the tsar retained great power.

Living conditions in rapidly growing industrial cities declined until the mid-nineteenth century, when governments undertook major urban development programs, including new systems of sewerage, water supply, and public transportation. Major changes in the class structure and family life occurred, as the home was celebrated as a domestic oasis, the separate spheres ideology strengthened, and the class structure became more complex and diversified. The prestige of science grew tremendously, and scientific discoveries, such as Darwin’s theory of natural selection, challenged the traditional religious understanding of the world. In the realm of literature and the arts, the romantic movement reinforced the spirit of change. Romanticism gave way to realism in the 1840s, reflecting Western society’s growing faith in science and evolutionary thinking, but also a sympathy with the plight of the poor.

Western society became increasingly nationalistic as well as urban and industrial in the late nineteenth century. Nation-states became more responsive to the needs of their people, and they enlisted widespread support as political participation expanded, educational opportunities increased, and social security systems took shape. Even socialism became increasingly national in orientation, gathering strength as a champion of working-class interests in domestic politics. Yet even though nationalism served to unite peoples, it also drove them apart and contributed to the tragic conflicts of the twentieth century.