Ottoman reformers and modernizers were convinced that if the empire was to survive, its government and people would have to dedicate themselves to the cause of progress, to the evolution of lifestyles and outlooks to meet the challenges of the modern world. Not all Ottomans, however, shared this view. Most Ottomans lived in the countryside, far from the urban centers of reform and innovation. Many saw no reason to abandon traditional ways, and some, like the nomadic Bedouin, had never been part of mainstream Ottoman society. In this 1870 decree, an Ottoman official proposed a solution to the “Bedouin problem.” As you read it, pay attention to the author’s views on human progress. Why did he believe that it was both a practical and moral necessity that the Bedouin change their ways?

To the model of proverbs and peers, His Excellency Firhan Pasha Zayd ‘Alwa. It is known that if one compares the tribes and people who live in the lifestyle of Bedouins [nomadic tribes] with those urbane people who live in the cities and villages, one will note the complexity in the customs of city-folk. In contrast, it will be noted that in comparison to the original creation of man and his internal self, the way of life of Bedouins is simple. In fact, the primitive and original state of man is most likely the same as that of the Bedouin. However, God has graced human beings with a characteristic that is absent from any other [species]. According to this characteristic, man cannot remain in his original state of creation but should prepare all that is needed for his food, drink, and clothing, and after this he must gather knowledge and develop commerce and other human necessities. He seeks to obtain other necessities as well, and every time he reaches a state of acquisition, then he sees the need to advance and progress beyond what he had in the past. . . . Thus, it is apparent that even if the first state of man is to be a Bedouin, urbanity is a characteristic that cannot be separated from him. For the human being has become civilized . . . and the virtues of humanity cannot be attained except through the path of urbanization and civilization. Those who surpass their brethren and control all elements of this world, completely or partially, are those who live in the cities and who are civilized.

After proving that this is the case, we would like to explain and specify the reasons those people demand to remain in this state [of being Bedouins]. They remain in this state of deprivation of the virtues of humanity and the characteristics of civilization for several reasons. The first is that these people are ignorant of the state of the world and the nations. Because of their ignorance we have found our fathers desiring to stay unchanged in the state to which they were born. Secondly, the basis of the wealth of the tribes and clans is animals — in particular camels — and since it is difficult to manage and raise animals and camels in the cities — where they cannot find pasture — the people remain in their original state of being. . . . The third reason is that the mentioned peoples are like wild animals who enjoy what they have gotten used to in terms of stealing and raiding the property of others of their own people and killing them. This has become a reason for their wildness and their insistence on staying in the state of Bedouinism. It should be obvious that the first reason — which is ignorance and illiteracy — is an ugly and unacceptable characteristic in all the creatures of this world. And the second reason is the subordination characteristic of animals, and it is contrary to the image according to which man was created, for God has created the human being to be the most honorable of all creatures, and He made all breathing creatures subservient to him. He who is a Bedouin has become accustomed to the opposite of this natural order, so that although he used to be over other creatures, he has become subservient.

The truth is that this fallen state is an insult to humanity, and accordingly if we investigate the immense harm these tribes cause each other, we will find that it has no equivalence in magnitude. For the human being has been commanded to protect those of his kind and treat them well, and is not commanded to do the opposite. In fact, all the religions command this, and in particular the Mohammedan Shari’a. After proving that this is contrary to what has been commanded and is prohibited in all religions and in the Mohammedan Shari’a, then anyone with intelligence will see that harming people and robbing them of their money and their cattle is contrary to humanity and Islam. He who dares to commit that which we have mentioned must be punished. In addition, we see that this implies that since living as a Bedouin . . . leads to these harmful results, then no one should stay in that state of being, especially since we have arrived at a time and epoch . . . where to stay in this fallen and immoral state of existence appears as a ugly habit in the eyes of the world. For these explained reasons, these people cannot stay even for a short period in this state, and these tribes and clans should be settled and gain good human characteristics. It is imperative upon the Sublime Government to facilitate the emergence of these moral characteristics. This is particularly the case since those tribes and clans that have been settled during the last two years have faced difficulties and material needs, and they have remained in their original state because they are deprived of access to agriculture and commerce. Thus, and in order to feed their children, they have dared to attack the fields belonging to the inhabitants of the cities and towns. And in that case the government will have to reimburse the farmers for their losses and to dispatch imperial troops to punish the perpetrators, all of which costs money. Thus, and before matters reach this state, we would advise to give the lands that extend from Tikrit to the borders of Mosul and that are located east of the Tigris River to the Shamr clan. Furthermore, we recommend that these lands be designated as Mutassarifiya [regional government] and be named as Sandjak [province] of Shamr, and that they be settled in these lands until they dig the necessary canals to the Tigris and reclaim the lands and plant them like other people. Once it is apparent that they are settled, then this place should be designated as a Mutassarifiya, like the Mutassarifiya of al-Muntafak, and this Mutassarifiya should be placed under your authority, O, Pasha! . . . Because those are used to being Bedouins, and because it will be difficult to sever those ties all at once, then we should grant some of them with animals a permit to pasture their animals on some of the lands, provided that they return to their places of residence. In order to encourage development of these lands, we should exempt those who reclaim the lands and dig the ditches and canals from all but the Miri tax. . . . Once this Sandjak is formed according to what has preceded, and the Mutassarifiya is subsequently established, then troops should be sent to keep the peace, and the Mutassarif [regional leader] should be assigned a deputy and a tax collector and all that he requires in terms of government officials. . . .

This official Ottoman decree has been issued by the ministry of the Vilayet of Baghdad, and let it be known to all.

Source: Ottoman government decree issued to the Amir of Samr, His Excellency Firhan Pasha, June 19, 1870. Ottoman archives of the Directorate General of State Archives at the Prime Ministry (Tapu Tahir: Mosul, 1869–1872). Translated by Akram Khater. From Sources in the History of the Modern Middle East, by Akram Fouad Khater. Reproduced with permission of HOUGHTON MIFFLIN COLLEGE DIVISION in the format Republish in a book via Copyright Clearance Center.

Questions to Consider