The Filipino rebel leader Emilio Aguinaldo (1869–1964) was in exile in Hong Kong when the Spanish-American War began. After the Americans defeated the Spanish at the Battle of Manila Bay on May 1, 1898, Aguinaldo decided to return to the Philippines to lead anti-Spanish Philippine land forces, and the United States agreed to transport him to the Philippines on an American naval vessel. He arrived on May 19, and on June 12, he presided over the Philippine declaration of independence. That declaration was not, however, recognized by either Spain or the United States at that time or in the treaty that ended the war. As a result, Filipino revolutionaries, led by Aguinaldo, launched a second war for independence, this time against the Americans. The mural included here depicts the June 12 declaration of Philippine independence. As you examine it, pay attention to the details of the ceremony. How would you characterize the tone and atmosphere of the event?

Questions to Consider