• Depictions of heroic military leaders and their interactions with their closest followers are found in the literature of many early societies. Sometimes the closest followers had once been opponents but were won over after recognizing the victor’s strength and courage. Not uncommonly, the martial heroes are depicted as gods who resemble men in many ways. In India, one of the documents recounting such heroes is the Rig Veda, a collection of hymns that is the best source of information about the early Aryans. In the excerpt that follows, Indra, the king of the gods, boasts of his might to a band of fighters. It can be compared to the second document, from the Sumerian Epic of Gilgamesh, which describes how Enkidu became a follower of Gilgamesh after being defeated by him in hand-to-hand combat.

“Indra and the Maruts” from the Rig Veda

“[Maruts:] “Indra, where are you coming from, all alone though you are so mighty? What is your intention, true lord? Will you make a pact with us, now that you have met us in our finery? Master of bay horses, tell us what your purpose is for us.” . . .

[Indra:] “Where was that independent spirit of yours, Maruts, when you left me all alone in the fight with the dragon? I was the one, fierce and strong and mighty, who bent aside the lethal weapons of every enemy with my own weapons.”

[Maruts:] “You did much with us as allies, with our many powers yoked in common, O bull. For we will do much, most valiant Indra, if we set our minds and will to do it, O Maruts.”

[Indra:] “I killed Vrtra, O Maruts, by my Indra-power, having grown strong through my own glorious rage. With the thunderbolt on my arm I made these all-luminous waters move well for man.”

[Maruts:] “No one can overcome your power, generous Indra; no one your equal is known to exist among the gods; no one being born now or already born could get such power. Do the things you will do, as you have grown strong.”

[Indra:] “Even when I am alone, my formidable power must be vast; whatever I boldly set out to do, I do. For I am known as terrible, O Maruts; whatever I set in motion, Indra himself is master of that. Your praise has made me rejoice, lordly Maruts, the sacred chant worthy of hearing that you made here for me — for Indra the bull, the good fighter — that you my friends made in person for me, your friend, in person.””

“Enkidu and Gilgamesh” from the Epic of Gilgamesh

“[Enkidu said,] “I will go to the place where Gilgamesh lords it over the people, I will challenge him boldly, and I will cry aloud in Uruk, ‘I have come to change the old order, for I am the strongest here.’ ”

Now Enkidu strode in front and the woman followed behind. He entered Uruk, that great market, and all the folk thronged round him where he stood in the street in strong-walled Uruk. The people jostled; speaking of him they said, “He is the spit of Gilgamesh.” “He is shorter.” “He is bigger of bone.” “This is the one who was reared on the milk of wild beasts. His is the greatest strength.” The men rejoiced: “Now Gilgamesh has met his match. This great one, this hero whose beauty is like a god, he is a match even for Gilgamesh.”

In Uruk the bridal bed was made, fit for the goddess of love. The bride waited for the bridegroom, but in the night Gilgamesh got up and came to the house. Then Enkidu stepped out, he stood in the street and blocked the way. Mighty Gilgamesh came on and Enkidu met him at the gate. He put out his foot and prevented Gilgamesh from entering the house, so they grappled, holding each other like bulls. They broke the doorposts and the walls shook, they snorted like bulls locked together. They shattered the doorposts and the walls shook. Gilgamesh bent his knee with his foot planted on the ground and with a turn Enkidu was thrown. Then immediately his fury died. When Enkidu was thrown he said to Gilgamesh, “There is not another like you in the world. Ninsun, who is as strong as a wild ox in the byre, she was the mother who bore you, and now you are raised above all men, and [the god] Enlil has given you the kingship, for your strength surpasses the strength of men.” So Enkidu and Gilgamesh embraced and their friendship was sealed.”

Sources: The Rig Veda: An Anthology of the One Hundred and Eight Hymns, selected, translated, and annotated by Wendy Doniger O’Flaherty (London: Penguin Classics, 1981). Copyright © Wendy Doniger O’Flaherty, 1981. Reproduced by permission of Penguin Books Ltd.; The Epic of Gilgamesh, translated with an introduction by N. K. Sandars (London: Penguin Classics, 1960, Third Edition 1972). Copyright © N. K. Sandars, 1960, 1964, 1972. Reproduced by permission of Penguin Books Ltd.

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