Was China’s decline in the nineteenth century due more to internal problems or to Western imperialism?
Treaty of NanjingThe settlement reached by Britain and China in 1842 was written in both English and Chinese. The chief negotiators of both sides signed the document, and the seals of both countries were placed on it. The Chinese seal was impressed with red ink in the traditional way, while the British used wax. (© Mary Evans Picture Library/National Archives, UK/The Image Works)
IIN 1800 MOST CHINESE HAD NO REASON to question the concept of China as the central kingdom. A century later China’s world standing had sunk precipitously. In 1900 foreign troops marched into China’s capital to protect foreign nationals, and more and more Chinese had come to think that their government, society, and cultural values needed to be radically changed.