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SOUND AND IMAGES

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Television may be our final link to true “mass” communication—a medium that in the 1960s through the 1980s attracted forty million viewers to a single episode of a popular prime-time drama like Bonanza (1959–1973) or a “must-see” comedy like Seinfeld (1989–1998). Today, the only program that attracts that kind of audience happens once a year—the Super Bowl, which drew 114 million viewers in 2015. Back in its full-blown mass media stage, television was available only on traditional TV sets, and people mostly watched only the original broadcast networks—ABC, CBS, and NBC.

Things are different today, as television has entered the fourth stage in the life cycle of a mass medium—convergence. Today, audiences watch TV on everything from big flat-screen digital sets to tiny smartphones and tablet screens. Back in the day, the networks either made or bought almost all TV shows, usually bankrolled by Hollywood film studios. These days, everyone from broadcast networks to cable channels to Internet services like Netflix and Amazon is producing original shows. Audiences today also watch the same show in multiple ways. For example, in 2015, for the first seven episodes of the Comedy Central show Inside Amy Schumer, 27 million people viewed the program on YouTube streams, 4.5 million watched on Facebook, 1.2 million viewed on Hulu, and 4.2 million watched on Snapchat. Only 1.4 million on an average evening watched the show on cable’s Comedy Central.1

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The first major crack in the networks’ mass audience dominance came when cable TV developed in the 1970s. At first, cable channels like HBO and TNT survived by redistributing old movies and network TV programs. But when HBO began producing popular award-winning original series like The Sopranos, the networks’ hold on viewers started to erode. Premium cable services like HBO (True Detective) and Showtime (Homeland) led the way, but now basic cable channels like AMC (The Walking Dead) and FX (Fargo) are producing popular original programming.

What cable really did was introduce a better business model—earning money from monthly subscription fees and advertising. The old network model relied solely on advertising revenue. The networks, worried about the loss both of viewers and of ad dollars to its upstart competitor, decided they wanted a piece of that action. Some networks started buying cable channels (NBC, for example, has purchased stakes in Bravo, E!, Syfy, USA Network, and the Weather Channel). The networks and local TV stations also championed retransmission consent—fees that cable providers like Comcast pay to local TV stations and the major networks each month for the right to carry their channels. Typically, cable companies in large-market cities pay their local broadcasters and the national networks about fifty to seventy-five cents per month for each cable subscriber. Those fees are then passed along to subscribers.

In recent years, retransmission fees have caused some friction between broadcasters and cable companies. For example, in 2013, when fee negotiations between CBS and Time Warner broke down, the station was dropped from Time Warner’s lineup in some markets for almost a month. In the same year, the evolving relationship between broadcasters and cable TV took a dramatic turn when General Electric, which started and owned NBC (and Universal Studios), sold majority control of its flagship network (and the film company) to Comcast, the nation’s largest cable provider. Comcast now produces or owns a significant amount of programming for use on its broadcast and cable channels, and exercises control over retransmission fees.

While the major tensions between cable and broadcasters appear to have quieted down, a new battle is brewing as the Internet and smaller screens are quickly becoming the future of television. On the surface, a mutually beneficial relationship has developed among streaming online services and broadcasters and cable providers—Hulu, after all, is jointly owned by Disney (ABC), 21st Century Fox (Fox), and Comcast (NBC). Internet streaming services help cable and broadcast networks increase their audiences through time shifting, as viewers watch favorite TV shows days, even weeks, after they originally aired. But these services are no longer satisfied to distribute network reruns and old cable shows—Netflix (Orange Is the New Black; Daredevil), and Amazon (Transparent) now develop original programming.

As the newest battle shakes up the TV landscape, one thing remains unchanged: high-quality stories that resonate with viewers. In the fragmented marketplace, in which the “mass” audience has shrunk, there may be plenty of room for small, quirky shows that attract younger fans who grew up on the Internet.

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BROADCAST NETWORKS TODAY may resent cable networks developing original programming, but in the beginning, network television actually stole most of its programming and business ideas from radio. Old radio scripts began reappearing in TV form, snatching radio’s sponsors, its program ideas, and even its prime-time evening audience. In 1949, for instance, The Lone Ranger rode over to television from radio, where the program had originated in 1933. Amos ’n’ Andy, a fixture on network radio since 1928, became the first TV series to have an entirely black cast in 1951. Since replacing radio in the 1950s as our most popular mass medium, television has sparked repeated arguments about its social and cultural impact. Television has been accused of having a negative impact on children and young people and has also faced criticism for enabling and sustaining a sharply partisan political system. But there are other sides to this story. In times of crisis, our fragmented and pluralistic society has embraced television as common ground. It was TV that exposed many to Civil Rights violations in the South and to the shared loss after the Kennedy and King assassinations in the 1960s. On September 11, 2001—in shock and horror—we turned on television sets to learn that nearly three thousand people had been killed in that day’s terrorist attacks. And in 2013, we viewed the Boston Marathon bombing attacks on our TVs and online. For better or worse, television remains a central touchstone in our daily lives.

In this chapter, we examine television and cable’s cultural, social, and economic impact. We will:

As you read through this chapter, think about your own experiences with television programs and the impact they have on you. What was your favorite show as a child? Were there shows you weren’t allowed to watch when you were young? If so, why? What attracts you to your favorite programs now? For more questions to help you think through the role of television and cable in our lives, see “Questioning the Media” in the Chapter Review.