The scientific process depends critically on the competence and honesty of scientists. If scientists engage in unethical research practice, their findings cannot be trusted, leaving society with no sound basis for making decisions regarding environmental issues.

The measurements and other information gathered during a scientific study are generally referred to as data. Because of their fundamental importance to science and, increasingly, to society at large, data must be gathered and managed very carefully (Figure 1.12). The most important obligation of the scientist is to be as accurate as possible in the recording, reporting, and sharing of data with other researchers. If research results cannot be verified, they are generally eventually discarded as “unsupported by further study.”

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No violation of scientific ethics is more serious than research misconduct, which goes beyond sloppy data collection into purposeful deception. This sin generally falls into three categories: fabrication, falsification, and plagiarism. Fabrication occurs when a scientist simply makes up data or results. Falsification involves tampering with research materials or equipment or changing data, such that it alters the outcome of the research. Plagiarism is using the ideas, procedures, or research results of others without giving them proper credit. Research misconduct can destroy the careers of individual scientists and undermine the role of science in informing policy decisions. Fortunately, there are checks on the scientific process.

Early scientists, such as the physicist Isaac Newton, often kept the results of their work secret, fearing that others would steal the credit. Scientific publishing came into being in the 17th century, under the sponsorship of the Royal Society of London, as a way of ensuring that scientists received credit for their discoveries. Heirs to that early effort are the many current research journals, such as Nature, one of the world’s most prestigious scientific journals. A key element in modern scientific publishing is peer review, in which experts in the field of research review scientific studies prior to publication for originality, soundness of the methods and analyses, significance of the results, and accuracy of the conclusions.

One factor that can interfere with the integrity of the scientific process is conflict of interest. Conflict of interest refers to competing interests, including personal, philosophical, and financial interests, which may interfere with the judgment of a researcher or reviewer of scientific work. Studies have shown that when a company funds research on a topic it has a financial interest in, such as the safety of a new drug or the environmental impact of a construction site, the results are more likely to be favorable to the company than if the research had been conducted independently. Personal relationships between researchers, both positive and negative, can encourage poor judgment and even research misconduct. Similarly, strongly held philosophical positions or beliefs can also lead to improper manipulation of the scientific process.