I-1

bold face indicates a definition

italics indicate a figure

t indicates a table

Please note: Page number links are approximate.

A

A (aminoacyl) sites, 78, 78

ABC model, 413–414, 414

Abiotic factors, 1004

Abomasum, 871, 871

Abortions, spontaneous, 322, 322–323, 323

Abscisic acid, 647, 648t, 661

Absolute temperature (T), 121–122

Absorption, 864, 866–868, 867, 868, 869

Accessory pigments, 161

Acclimatization, 821

Acetyl-coenzyme A (acetyl-CoA), 135, 135, 137

and the citric acid cycle, 138–140, 139

Acetylation, 378–379, 379

Acetylcholine, and nerve cells, 753, 754

Acidic solutions, 37

and Archaea, 546, 546

in stomachs, 865–866

Acoelomates, 947–948, 948

Acorn worms, 964, 964

Acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS), 473

Acquired immunity. See Adaptive immunity

Acrosomes, 906, 907

ACTH. See Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)

Actin, 200, 201, 206t

in muscles, 786–790, 788, 789, 790

in slime molds, 566

Action potentials, 746–748, 747

propagation of, 748, 748–749, 749

and sensory receptors, 764–766, 765, 766

and twitch contractions, 795, 795

Activation energy (E_A), 124–125, 125

Activators, 127, 128, 387, 387

Active sites, 125, 125–126, 126

Active transport, 97–100, 98

primary, 97–98, 98

secondary, 98–99, 99

Adaptation [sensory signals], 765

Adaptive immunity, 923, 923t. See also Antibodies; Cell-mediated immunity

and B cells, 928–934

and T cells, 934–936

Adaptive radiations, 454, 455

of angiosperms, 704

Addition rule, 334, 334

Adenine (A), 41, 41, 54, 54

Adenosine diphosphate (ADP), 119, 119

Adenosine monophosphate (AMP), 119, 119

cyclic (cAMP), 188, 188

Adenosine triphosphate (ATP), 15, 116, 119, 132

and active transport, 97–98, 98

and the Calvin cycle, 157, 158

and cellular energy, 119

and cellular respiration, 132–133, 133, 149, 149–150

and the citric acid cycle, 138–140, 139

and the cross-bridge cycle, 789–790, 790

hydrolysis of, 122–123, 123

and phosphorylation, 187, 187

synthesis of, 142, 142–144, 143, 164–166, 165

Adenoviruses, 287, 288

ADH. See Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)

Adherens junctions, 208, 209, 210t

ADP. See Adenosine diphosphate (ADP)

Adrenal glands, 818, 821

Adrenal medulla, 821

Adrenaline, 814, 817t, 818, 844

and cell signaling, 180, 183, 188

and fight-or-flight responses, 848

Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), 815–816, 816t, 818, 820–821

Advantageous mutations, 313, 313–314, 314, 427, 460–461

Advertisement displays, 996, 996

Aerobic reactions, 535

Age structure of populations, 1010, 1011, 1011

Aging, and telomeres, 256

Agonist muscles, 795

Agriculture, 595–597. See also Green Revolution; Rice; Wheat; Zea mays [corn]

among insects, 1030

and artificial selection, 436, 596

and biodiversity, 1084–1085, 1085

and C₄ plants, 606

and conservation biology, 1092–1093

and environmental risk factors, 365, 365–366

and evolution, 21, 502–503

and fertilizers, 616–617, 1082–1084, 1083

and fungi, 718, 733–734, 734

and genetic diversity, 708–709, 709

and genetic engineering, 266, 266–267, 596–597, 617, 674, 683–684

and integrated pest management, 684

and plant defenses, 683–684, 684

and plant hormones, 649–650

and polyploidy, 279–280

and sustainable development, 1093–1094

AIDS. See Acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS)

Albinism, 340, 341

Aldosterone, 892, 893

Algae, 562. See also Chlamydomonas [alga]; Volvox [alga]

brown, 568–569, 569, 580

green, 566–568, 568

and ocean acidification, 1080, 1080

red, 566, 567, 580

Alkaloids, 675, 677t

Allantois, 904, 905

Allard, Henry, 662

Allele frequencies, 427

and natural selection, 434

Alleles, 310–311, 311, 329

multiple, 340–341

segregation of, 332, 333

Allergies, 925, 930

Allopatric speciation, 451–456, 457

visual synthesis of, 461

Allosteric effect, 387, 387

and transcriptional regulation, 389, 390, 390

Allosteric enzymes, 127–128, 128

a carbons, 40, 40, 70, 70

a helices, 74, 75

Alpine biomes, 1050, 1053

Alternation of generations, 620–624, 621, 622, 622, 624

evolution of, 688–689

Alternative splicing, 65, 65, 383, 383

and antibody diversity, 933

and genome size, 279

Altruistic behavior, 998

and group selection, 998

and kin selection, 999, 999–1001, 1000

reciprocal, 999

Alvarez, Walter, 6

Alveolata, 570, 570

Alveoli, 833, 834

Amacrine cells, 777

Amber, 1068, 1068

Amine hormones, 814, 814

Amino acid replacement, 297, 298

Amino acids, 39

essential, 857, 860, 860t

in proteins, 40, 40

and side chains, 70, 70–72, 71

Amino ends, 72, 72

Amino groups, 40, 40, 70, 70

Aminoacyl tRNA synthetases, 79, 79

Ammonia. See also Fertilizers

and nitrogenous wastes, 881, 882

Amnion, 904, 905

Amniotes, 970, 971

Amniotic eggs, 970

Amoebas, 554, 555, 564–565, 565

photosynthetic, 559

Amoebozoans, 564–566, 565, 566

AMP. See Adenosine monophosphate (AMP)

Amphibians, 970

as ecological warning, 1090–1091, 1091

hearts of, 845, 845

history of, 975

life cycle of, 970, 970

Amphioxus, 964–965, 965

Amphipathic molecules, 90

Amplification, 257–259, 258

of hormones, 815, 815–817

Amylase, 865, 865t, 867

Anabolism, 117, 117, 120

energy in, 122, 122

Anaerobic metabolism, 144–146, 145

Analogy, 468. See also Convergent evolution

Anammox (anaerobic ammonia oxidation) reactions, 540

Anaphase I [meiosis], 227–228, 228

Anaphase II [meiosis], 228, 229

Anaphase [mitosis], 224, 224–225

Anatomy, and ecological systems, 19–20

Anchors, 93, 94

Anemones, sea, 950–952, 951

Angiosperms, 600, 628–638. See also Flowers

biodiversity of, 702–709, 703, 705, 706, 708

and coevolution, 704

evolution of, 689

genomes of, 279–280, 280

phylogenetic tree for, 703

visual synthesis of, 710–711

Angiotensin II, 892, 893

I-2

Animal husbandry. See Agriculture; Cattle

Animal rights movement, 504

Animals, 580

biodiversity of, 1067

cells of, 101–103, 102

circulatory systems of, 840–849, 841, 842, 844, 845, 846

colonization of the land by, 974–975

and consciousness, 782

digestion in, 864–872, 867, 868, 869, 870, 871

diploblastic vs. triploblastic, 948, 949

endocrine systems of, 818, 818–822, 819

evolution of, 589, 589, 972–975, 973, 974

extracellular matrix in, 212, 212–214

feeding by, 861, 861–864, 862, 863

metabolism in, 852–857, 853, 854, 855, 856

muscles of, 198, 198, 786, 786–792, 787, 788

nervous systems of, 740–743

nutrition and diet of, 857, 860, 860–861, 860t, 861t

phylogenetic tree for, 946, 947

sensory systems of, 762, 762–766, 763, 764

skeletons of, 797–804, 798, 799, 800

visual synthesis of, 977

Annealing, 258, 259

Annelid worms, 956–957, 957

fossils of, 973

Annual clocks, 993

Anoxygenic reactions, 535–536, 536

Antagonist muscles, 794, 794–795

Anterior pituitary gland, 819, 819

Anthers, 630, 630

and crossing plants, 328, 329

Anthropocene Period, 1072–1073

Antibodies, 929, 929–930

clonal selection of, 930, 930–931

diversity of, 931–934, 932, 933

Anticodons, 78, 78

Antidiuretic hormone (ADH), 816t, 818, 820, 891

and behavior, 989

and urine, 891–892, 892

Antigen-presenting cells, 935, 935

Antigenic drift, 937, 937

Antigenic shift, 937, 937

Antigenic variation, 939

Antigens, 929

Antioxidants, 167, 168

Antiparallel strands, 56

Antirrhinum majus [snapdragon], 333, 333

Ants

as eusocial insects, 1001

fungal infection of, 731, 731

history of, 1068

and pheromones, 824, 824

and plant defenses, 677, 677–678, 678

and relatedness, 1000, 1000

and symbiosis with fungi, 1030

and symbiosis with plants, 678, 678

Aortic bodies, 835, 836

Aortic valves, 846, 847

Apes, 486–487

phylogenetic tree for, 486, 487

Aphids, 527, 1000, 1028–1030, 1029

Apical dominance, 650, 650

Apomixis, 638

Appendicular skeleton, 800, 800

Appendix, 871–872

Aquaporins, 97, 876

Aquatic biomes, 1052, 1057–1059, 1058–1060

Aqueous humor, 773, 773

Aqueous solutions, 35

pH of, 37

Arabidopsis thaliana [mustard plant]

and circadian clock, 663–664

floral development of, 412–414, 413, 414

genes of, 559

genome of, 278, 278t

growth of, 661

Archaea, 14, 530, 532, 534, 535

biodiversity of, 545–548, 546

genomes of, 279, 280

and global warming, 1074

phylogenetic tree for, 17, 534, 542, 545, 545–546

vs. Bacteria and Eukarya, 534t

Archaeopteryx lithographica [feathered dinosaur], 479, 480

Archaeplastida, 566–568, 567, 568

Ardi [hominin], 489, 490

Aristotle, 326, 726

Arnold, William, 162, 163

Arrhenius, Svante, 126

Arteries, 841–843, 842

pulmonary, 846, 846

Arterioles, 841, 842

Arthropods, 960–963

history of, 974

phylogenetic tree for, 962

and succession, 1035, 1035

Artificial selection, 15, 15, 370, 436

and agriculture, 436, 596, 637, 709

and behavior, 986–987, 987

Ascomycetes, 729, 729–731

life cycle of, 730, 730

Asexual reproduction, 220, 898–900, 899, 900

and the biological species concept, 447–448

and evolution, 901, 901–903, 902

in plants, 638, 638–639

Assimilation, 538, 538

Assisted migration, 1093

Associative learning, 990

Assortment, principle of independent, 335–339, 336, 338

Astrocytes, 744–745

Atomic mass, 30

Atoms, 30–32

ATP. See Adenosine triphosphate (ATP)

ATP synthase, 142, 142

Atrioventricular (AV) nodes, 847–848, 848

Atrioventricular (AV) valves, 846, 846

Auditory cortex, 770

Australopithecus afarensis [hominin], 489, 489, 490

Autocrine signaling, 182, 184, 823

Autoimmune diseases, 922–923, 936

Autonomic nervous system, 755–756, 756

and homeostasis, 756–757, 757

Autotrophs, 116, 117. See also Primary producers

Auxin, 647–650, 648t, 649

Avery, Oswald, 50–52

Avirulent pathogens, 670

Axial skeleton, 800, 800

Axillary buds, 644, 644

and apical dominance, 650

Axon hillocks, 743, 743, 752

Axons, 743, 743, 744

B

B cells, 924, 928

and antibodies, 929–930

Bacteria, 14, 530–534, 532. See also Escherichia coli [bacterium]; Streptococcus pneumoniae [bacterium]

binary fission of, 898, 899

biodiversity of, 540–544, 544

and the carbon cycle, 535–538, 536, 537, 538

cell size of, 530–531, 531

and evolution experiments, 17–19

genomes of, 279, 280

gram-positive, 543–544

magnetotactic, 993

myxo-, 531, 532

nitrogen fixing, 539, 539

as pathogens, 922, 923, 937–938, 938

phylogenetic tree for, 17, 534, 540, 542, 542, 543

and plant genomes, 673–674, 674

proteo-, 543, 543

symbiotic, 562, 562

vs. Archaea and Eukarya, 534t

Bacteriochlorophyll, 536, 537

Bacteriophages, 287, 288, 392, 393

Balancing selection, 434

Ball-and-socket joints, 802, 802

Baltimore, David, 286

Bananas, 595

Baptista, Luis, 996

Barcode of Life, 447

Bark, 651, 651, 652

and innate immunity, 924, 924

visual synthesis of, 711

Barnacles, 962

Basal lamina, 199, 199, 213, 213

Basal resistance, 671, 671

Base excision repair, 305, 305

Base pairing

and hydrogen bonds, 56, 56

and translation, 79, 79

Base stacking, 56, 57

Bases, 41, 53

complementary, 56, 56

purine vs. pyridamine, 41, 41–42, 54, 54

Basic solutions, 37

Basidiomycetes, 729, 729, 731–733, 732

life cycle of, 732, 733

Basilar membranes, 769, 770

Basophils, 924, 925

Bats, 972

and echolocation, 771, 771

and fungal infections, 719

and reciprocal altruism, 999

Bdelloid rotifers, 902–903

Beavers, 1034, 1034

Bees

and behavior, 988, 988–989

and communication, 997, 997

as eusocial insects, 1001

history of, 1068, 1068

and language, 503

and pheromones, 823

as pollinators, 19, 19

Beetles, 962

history of, 1068

Behavior, 982

altruistic, 998–1001

components of, 982–983

I-3

and DNA sequencing, 987–989, 989

and ecological systems, 19–20

and fixed action patterns, 983–984, 984

and hormones, 985–986, 986

and learning, 989–992, 991, 992

and the nervous system, 984–985

social, 997–1001, 998

stereotyped, 983–984, 984

visual synthesis of, 858–859

Behavioral isolation, 450

Bennett, J. Claude, 931–932

Benson, Andrew, 159

Bernard, Claude, 757

b barrels, 86, 86

b -oxidation, 148, 148

b sheets, 74, 75

Bilateral symmetry, 590, 947, 947, 948

Bilateria, 948, 948, 956–966

phylogenetic tree for, 949

Bilayers, 90, 91

Bile, 867, 868

Binary fission, 220–221, 221

Binding, cooperative, 838

Binding affinity, 190

Biodiversity, 522, 1091. See also Genetic diversity

of angiosperms, 702–709, 703, 705, 706, 708

of antibodies, 931–934, 932, 933

of Archaea, 545–548, 546

of Bacteria, 540–544, 544

of bryophytes, 690–693, 691, 692, 693

and the carbon cycle, 522

and climate change, 1077–1080, 1079, 1080

and complex cellularity, 592

and conservation biology, 1091

of eukaryotes, 562–572

of ferns, 697, 697–699, 698

of fungi, 726–734, 729, 732

global, 1066, 1066–1068, 1068

of gymnosperms, 699–702, 700, 701, 702

and history of reefs, 975

of horsetails, 697, 697–699

hotspots for, 941–943, 942

and island biogeography, 1019

and the latitudinal diversity gradient, 1066, 1066–1067, 1067

of lycophytes, 694, 694–697, 695, 696

measurement of, 1032

of plants, 682–684, 683, 684, 688–690, 690

and predator–prey dynamics, 736

and resource partitioning, 1025, 1025

threats to, 1092, 1092

of vertebrates, 966–972, 967, 968, 969, 970, 971

visual synthesis of, 976–977

Biodiversity hotspots, 1091

Biofuels, 1083

Biogeochemical cycles, 1061 See also Carbon cycle; Nitrogen cycle; Phosphorus cycle; Sulfur cycle

Biological species concept (BSC), 446–449

and bacteria, 542–543

Biologists, 4, 1094, 1094–1095

Biology, 4

Biomass, 1037–1038, 1038

oceanic, 1057–1059, 1060

Biomes, 1046, 1050, 1050

aquatic, 1052, 1057–1059, 1058–1060

terrestrial, 1050–1051, 1052–1057

Biomineralization, 516–517, 517

Biotic factors, 1004

Biotrophic pathogens, 669

Biparental inheritance, 359

Bipedalism, 489, 495–496, 496

Bipolar cells, 776–777

Birds, 970, 971

and acquisition of birdsong, 996, 996–997

and consciousness, 504

and culture, 503, 503

and dinosaurs, 479, 480

Galápagos finches, 435, 435, 454, 455

hearts of, 846, 846–847

and learning, 990

respiratory systems of, 834–835, 835

and sexual reproduction, 901, 901

Birdsong, 996, 996–997

Birth, 918, 918

and population size, 1007, 1007

Bissel, Mina, 215

Bivalents, 227, 227

Bivalves, 958, 959

history of, 974

Bladders, 885, 885

Blakemore, Richard, 993

Blastocysts, 400, 401, 914, 915

visual synthesis of, 916

Blastoderm, cellular, 404, 404

Blastulas, 588, 588–589, 914, 914

Blending inheritance, 326–327, 327, 334–335

Blood, 829

composition of, 835–837, 836

flow of, 841–843, 842

glucose levels in, 147

oxygen levels in, 835

pH of, 37

regulation of, 844, 892–893, 893

Blood cells, red, 198, 198

and active transport, 99, 99–100

Blood cells, white, 924, 925

and infection, 823

Blood groups, 428, 428t

Blood–brain barrier, 744–745

Bohr, Christian, 839–840

Bonds, chemical, 32–35

of carbon, 38, 38

covalent, 33, 33

double, 33

and energy, 118–119

glycosidic, 43, 43

hydrogen, 35–36, 36

ionic, 34, 34–35

nonpolar covalent, 34

peptide, 40, 40, 72, 72–73

phosphodiester, 41, 41

polar covalent, 33–34, 34

Bone marrow, 801, 802

and B cells, 928, 928, 936

Bones, 801, 801–802

and endoskeletons, 799–800, 800

formation of, 801, 801

Bony fish, 968–969, 969

Borlaug, Norman, 637–638, 684, 734

Borthwick, H. A., 659

Bosch, Karl, 617

Bowman, William, 885

Bowman’s capsules, 885, 885–886, 887, 887

Brachiopods, 973–974

Brachydactyly, 339, 340

Brains, 741, 742

function of, 777–778

organization of, 778, 778–780, 779

size of, 496–498, 497

Brainstems, 777, 778

Brakefield, Paul, 593

Branching

of roots, 655, 655

of shoots, 644, 644–646

Breathing

and the citric acid cycle, 138

regulation of, 835, 836

Breeding. See Artificial selection

Brenner, Sydney, 59

Bridges, Calvin B., 350

Bronchi, primary, 833, 834

Bronchioles, 833, 834

Brown algae, 568–569, 569, 580

Bryophytes, 600. See also Hornworts; Liverworts; Mosses

alternation of generations in, 621–623, 622, 623

biodiversity of, 690–693, 691, 692, 693

desiccation tolerance in, 600–601, 601

BSC. See Biological species concept (BSC)

Bud scales, 646, 646

Budding, 898, 899

Bulbourethral glands, 906, 906

Bulk flow, 582, 583, 829

and circulatory systems, 829, 829–830

and multicellularity, 581–582, 582

Bundle sheaths, 605, 605–606

Burgess Shale, 476, 476, 973

Bursa of Fabricius, 928, 928

Butterflies, 962, 963

life cycle of, 1011–1013, 1012

and population dynamics, 1004, 1006, 1006–1008

C

C₃ plants, 605

C₄ plants, 605

C-value paradox, 279, 281

Cadherins, 206–207, 207, 208, 210t

and complex multicellularity, 583

Caenorhabditis elegans [nematode worm], 415

development of, 415, 415–417, 416

dosage compensation in, 380

genome of, 278, 278t

Calcitonin, 816t, 821

Calmette, Albert, 938

Calmodulin, 792

Calvin, Melvin, 158, 159

Calvin cycle, 155, 155, 157, 157–160

visual synthesis of, 172

CAM. See Crassulacean acid metabolism (CAM)

Cambrian explosion, 973–974

cAMP. See Cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP)

Cancer, 176–178, 177

and cell-cycle checkpoints, 236

metastasis of, 213, 213–214, 239

and mutations, 238–239, 239, 294, 294–295

and oncogenes, 236–238

and signaling errors, 192–193

and telomerase, 256

visual synthesis of, 418

Canines [teeth], 863, 863

Cann, Rebecca, 491–493, 499

Cannon, Walter, 757

Capacitation, 912

Capillaries, 841, 842

pulmonary, 833, 833

Capsids, 277

I-4

Carbohydrates, 39, 42

and the Calvin cycle, 158, 160

complex, 42

structure of, 42, 42–43, 43

transport of, in phloem, 611, 611–612, 612

Carbon, 37–39

atoms of, 30, 30

bonds of, 38, 38

and metabolism, 116, 117

molecules containing, 38, 38–39, 39

Carbon cycle, 510

and bacteria, 535–538, 536, 537, 538

and biodiversity, 522

and ecology, 521, 521–522, 1061, 1061–1062

and evolution, 522–523, 523, 548–549

and food webs, 1036–1037, 1037

human influences on, 513–515, 514, 1073, 1073–1082

long-term, 515–520, 516–517, 518, 519, 520

short-term, 510–515, 511, 512, 514, 515

visual synthesis of, 1086–1087

Carbon dioxide

in the Calvin cycle, 157–159

and hemoglobin, 840

history of atmospheric, 512, 512, 514, 514, 517–520, 519, 520, 1074–1076

and leaves, 601–602, 602

and respiratory systems, 828–830, 829

seasonal oscillation in, 510–511, 511

Carboxyl ends, 72, 72

Carboxyl groups, 40, 40, 70, 70

Carboxylation, 157, 157

Cardiac cycles, 847, 847

Cardiac muscles, 787, 787, 847

organization of, 787, 787–789, 788

Cardiac output (CO), 848–849

Cardiovascular systems. See Circulatory systems

Carnivores, 521, 521, 971

evolution of, 592

Caron, Joan, 215

Carotenoids, 161

Carotid bodies, 835, 836

Carpels, 629, 629–630, 630

Carriers, 97, 97

Carrying capacity (K), 1008–1009, 1009

Carsonella rudii, 25

Cartilage, 798, 798

and bone formation, 801, 801

in fish, 967–968, 968

Cartilaginous fish, 968, 968

Case 1: The First Cell, 25–27, 26, 27

and cell membranes, 91–92

and cellular respiration, 146

and chemical reactions, 128–129

and the citric acid cycle, 139–140

and the genetic code, 83

and molecules of life, 45–47

and nucleic acids, 59

Case 2: Cancer, 176–187, 177

metastasis of, 213, 213–214

and oncogenes, 236–239

and signaling errors, 192–193

Case 3: Personal genome, 244–246

and ancestry, 358–359, 359, 360

and genetic risk factors, 294–295

and genetic testing, 342

lifestyle choices, 386

and personalized medicine, 274, 375

reducing genetic risk factors, 317–318

and regenerative medicine, 403

sequencing of, 264

Case 4: Malaria, 422–424

and coevolution, 434–435, 455–456

and natural selection, 501–502

Case 5: Human microbiome, 525–528, 526

and chloroplast symbiosis, 557–559, 559

and the immune system, 923, 925

and intestinal bacteria, 550, 550–551

and mitochondria symbiosis, 559, 560

and origin of eukaryotic cells, 560, 561

Case 6: Agriculture, 595–597

and fertilizers, 616–617

and fungi, 733–734, 734

and genetic diversity, 708–709, 709

and the Green Revolution, 637–638

and plant defenses, 683–684, 684

and plant hormones, 649–650

Case 7: Predator–Prey, 736–738

and cephalization, 742–743

and endocrine system, 821–822

and muscle types, 797

and osmoregulation, 880–881, 881

and regulation of blood flow, 843–844

Case 8: Biodiversity hotspots, 941–943, 942

and biodiversity measurements, 1032

and climate change, 1077–1080, 1079, 1080

and conservation biology, 1091

and history of reefs, 975

and island biogeography, 1019

and the latitudinal diversity gradient, 1066, 1066–1067, 1067

and resource partitioning, 1025, 1025

Casparian strips, 614, 614

Catabolism, 117, 117, 120, 122

energy in, 122, 122

Cats

calico, 381, 381

cloned, 402–403, 403

and pheromones, 823

Cattle, 971

and mutualisms, 1030, 1030

rumen of, 525–527

Causation, 513

and correlations, 513

Cavitation, 610, 610

Cecum, 871, 871

Cell adhesion, 206–207, 207

visual synthesis of, 241

Cell communication, 180–182

and complex multicellularity, 584–585, 585, 586

and endocrine systems, 822, 822–824

Cell cycle, 221, 221–222

regulation of, 233, 233–236

Cell division, 220–222. See also Meiosis I; Meiosis II; Mitosis

visual synthesis of, 240

Cell junctions, 199, 206–210, 210t

Cell-mediated immunity, 934, 934–936, 935, 936

Cell membranes, 90–94. See also Plasma membranes

Cell signaling, 182–185, 822, 822–824

visual synthesis of, 241

Cell theory, 90

Cell walls, 96, 103

and cell shape, 100, 100

in plants, 211, 211, 587–588

Cells, 12, 12–15, 13, 90. See also Organs; Tissues

and active transport, 99, 99–100

amacrine, 777

animal, 101–103, 102

antigen-presenting, 935, 935

B, 924, 928–930

bipolar, 776–777

blood, red, 99, 99–100, 198, 198

blood, white, 924, 925, 928

chloride, 878, 878

coenocytic, 565

companion, 611, 611

cone, 774, 774–775, 775

cytotoxic T, 924, 934–935, 935, 935t

dendritic, 924, 925, 926

dikaryotic (n + n), 724, 725

diploid, 223

endothelial, 887, 888

flagella of, 204, 204, 231

germ, 256, 293–294

glial, 744–745

guard, 603, 603

hair, 767–771, 769, 770

haploid, 223

helper T, 924, 934–935, 935, 935t

hepatocytes, 198, 198, 215

heterokaryotic, 724, 725

horizontal, 777

host, 287

induced pluripotent stem, 403

internal organization of, 100–104

Leydig, 908

mast, 924, 925, 926

memory, 924, 930, 930

microvilli of, 198, 198, 201, 201

multipotent, 401

muscle, 198, 198, 204

natural killer, 924, 925

neurons, 198, 198

neurosecretory, 811

parenchyma, 606, 607

pH of, 40

plant, 103, 103

plasma, 924, 930, 930

pluripotent, 401

pluripotent, induced, 403

procambial, 646

responding, 180, 180–181

rod, 774, 774–775, 775

sensory receptor, 762–763, 763

Sertoli, 909

signaling, 180, 180–181, 822, 822–824

somatic, 293–294, 294

stem, 256, 401–402

T, 924, 928, 934, 934–936, 935, 935t, 936

totipotent, 400–401

Cellular blastoderm, 404, 404

Cellular respiration, 132–135, 134

and first cells, 146

visual synthesis of, 173

vs. photosynthesis, 171

Cellulase, 870

Cellulose, 211, 211

Centipedes, 962

Central dogma of molecular biology, 13, 13, 52, 53, 77, 77

Central nervous system (CNS), 754–755, 755

Centromeres, 223, 223, 302

Centrosomes, 200, 200

I-5

Cephalization, 742–743

Cephalochordates, 964–966, 965

Cephalopods, 958, 959

Cerebellum, 777, 778

Cerebral cortex, 777–780, 778, 779

Cerebrum, 778, 778

Cervix, 908, 908

Chain terminators, 263, 263

Channels, 96–97, 97

Chaparral biomes, 1050, 1056

Chaperones, 76–77, 386

Chara corollina [alga], 621, 621

Character states, 468

Characters, 468

and phylogeny, 946

Chargaff, Erwin, 57

Checkpoints, 235–236, 236

Chelicerates, 962

history of, 974

Chemical bonds, 32–35

Chemical energy, 118–119

and cellular respiration, 132–133, 133

Chemical reactions, 35, 35, 120–124. See also Polymerase chain reactions (PCR)

aerobic, 535

anammox (anaerobic ammonia oxidation), 540

anoxygenic, 535–536, 536

energetically coupled, 123, 123–124

and enzymes, 124–129

exergonic vs. endergonic, 121, 121

and first cells, 128–129

oxidation–reduction, 133–135, 134, 155, 155, 535

oxygenic, 535

and thermodynamics, 121, 121–122

Chemiosmotic hypothesis, 143

Chemistry, 8–12

Chemoautotrophs, 537–539, 538

Chemoreceptors, 763, 763–764

and smell and taste, 766, 767

Chemotrophs, 116, 117

Chiasmata, 227, 227

Childbirth, 918, 918

Chimpanzees

and culture, 503, 503

and human lineage, 487, 487–488

and language, 503, 504

Chitin, 716, 799, 960

Chlamydomonas [alga], 556, 557, 567, 568, 587

Chlorella [alga], 158

Chloride cells, 878, 878

Chlorophyll, 112, 160–161, 161

in bacteria, 536, 537

and evolution of photosynthesis, 170

Chloroplast genomes, 285

Chloroplasts, 103, 103, 111–112, 112. See also Mitochondria; Organelles

and endosymbiosis, 171, 171, 527–528, 557–559, 559

inheritance of, 359–360

and metabolism, 554, 555

starch storage in, 158, 160, 160

structure of, 156–157, 157

Choanocytes, 949–950, 950

Choanoflagellates, 563–564, 564, 950

and cell adhesion, 583–584, 584

Cholecystokinin (CCK), 867, 868

Cholesterol, 92

and cell membranes, 92–93, 93

genes affecting, 374, 374

structure of, 45

Chomsky, Noam, 503

Chondrichthyes, 968, 968

Chordata, 964–966

Chorion, 905, 905

Chromatids

non-sister, 227, 227

sister, 223, 223

Chromatin, 58, 222, 282, 283, 378, 379

Chromatin remodeling, 378

and development, 408

and vernalization, 664

Chromosome condensation, 282, 283, 284

Chromosomes, 58, 222–223, 223. See also Sex chromosomes

and gene regulation, 380–382, 381

and genes, 350–351, 351

genetic variation in, 318–323

homologous, 222–223, 223, 282

of human genome, 282, 284, 284–285

and independent assortment, 337–338, 338

and meiosis, 226–228, 229, 231–233, 232

and mitosis, 223–223, 224

mutations in, 301, 301–303, 302, 303

and nondisjunction, 350–351, 351

replication of, 254–256, 255, 256, 257

and segregation of alleles, 332, 333

Chytrids, 727, 727

Cilia, 204, 204, 924–925

Circadian clocks, 663–664, 993–994

and endocrine system, 821

Circular muscles, 870, 870

Circulation, 829

Circulatory systems, 840–844, 841, 842, 844, 845, 846. See also Respiratory systems

and bulk flow, 582, 583

and cell signaling, 182

Cis-regulatory elements, 412

Cisternae, 106, 107

Citric acid cycle, 134, 135, 138–140, 139, 140

and first cells, 139–140

visual synthesis of, 173

Cladistics, 469. See also Statistics

Clams, 957–958, 959

Class I, II, and III genes, 935

Classes, 467, 467

Classical conditioning, 990

Classification. See Phylogenetic trees; Taxonomy

Claudins, 208, 210t

Cleavage, 913–914, 914, 915

Clements, Frederic, 1031, 1035

Climate, 1046, 1046–1050, 1047, 1048, 1049

Climate change. See also Global warming

and conservation biology, 1092–1093

and reefs, 975

and ruminants, 871

Climate models, 1075, 1075–1076, 1076

Climax communities, 1035, 1036

Clitoris, 908, 908, 909

Clocks

annual, 993

circadian, 663–664, 821, 993–994

lunar, 993

molecular, 303, 440–441, 441, 471–472

Clockshifting, 994, 994

Clonal selection, 930, 930–931

Clones, 401–403, 403, 898

Closed circulatory systems, 840–841, 841

Clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPR), 267, 267–268, 922

Cnidaria, 948, 950–952, 951

and reefs, 974

CNV. See Copy-number variation (CNV)

CO. See Cardiac output (CO)

Co-speciation, 455, 456

Coal. See also Fossil fuels

and fungal inhibition, 718

and lycophytes, 695, 697

Coccolithophorids, 574, 574

Cochlea, 768, 769, 770

Cochlear ducts, 769, 770

Codons, 78, 78

anti-, 78, 78

initiation, 79

stop, 80

Coelacanth, 969, 969

Coelom, 947–948, 948

Coelomates, 947–948, 948

Coenocytic cells, 565

and multicellularity, 579

Coevolution, 549

and angiosperms, 704, 975

and aphids, 1028–1030, 1029

and malaria, 434–435, 455–456, 938

of plants and ants, 678

and predator–prey dynamics, 736–737

Coenzyme Q (CoQ), 141, 142

Cofactors, 128–129

Cognition, 780, 780–782, 781

Cohesion, 36–37

Cohorts, 1013

Collagen, 212, 212, 800, 843

and phylogeny, 946

Collecting ducts, 885, 885–886

Colon, 869

Color blindness, 351–352, 352

Comb-jellies, 952, 953

Combinatorial control, 382, 382, 412–415, 413, 414

Commensalisms, 1030–1031, 1031, 1031t

Common ancestors, 465–466, 466, 467

of humans, 486–488, 491–495

Communication [animal], 995, 995–997

Communication [cell], 180–182

and complex multicellularity, 584–585, 585, 586

and endocrine systems, 822, 822–824

Communities, 521, 1031–1036

and climate change, 1076–1080

climax, 1035, 1036

and disturbances, 1034, 1034–1035

and keystone species, 1033–1034, 1034

and predation, 1032–1033, 1033

and succession, 1035, 1035–1036

Compact bone, 801, 801

Companion cells, 611, 611

Comparative genomics, 277

Competition, 1023–1024, 1031t

and fitness, 433

intraspecific vs. interspecific, 1008, 1024

and sexual selection, 437–438

visual synthesis of, 1041

Competitive exclusion, 1024, 1024–1025

and communities, 1032

Complement system, 927–928, 928

Complementary bases, 56, 56

I-6

Complex carbohydrates, 42

Complex traits, 364, 364

concordance of, 371–373, 373t

and diseases and disorders, 364–365, 365, 373–375, 374, 375

and the environment, 365, 365–366

and multiple genes, 366, 366–367

and Punnett squares, 366, 366–367

and regression toward the mean, 369, 369

Compound eyes, 771, 772

Concentration gradients, 96, 98

and crosscurrent multipliers, 888–890, 889

Concordance, 371–373, 373t

Concurrent flow, 831, 832

Conditioning, 990

Cone cells, 774, 774–775, 775

Cones, 625, 626

Conformational changes

and ATP synthesis, 143

and cross-bridge cycles, 789–790, 790

and membrane proteins, 97

and receptors, 185–186

Conifers, 700–702, 701

Conjugation, 533, 533

and the biological species concept, 447, 449

Connective tissue, 212

Connell, Joseph, 683, 1034

Connexins, 210, 210t

Consciousness, 503–504, 781–782

Conservation, evolutionary

of developmental transcription factors, 410–412, 498, 498

of hormones, 818

of proteins, 58

Conservation biology, 1016, 1091–1094, 1092, 1093

Conserved sequences, 277

Constant (C) regions, 929, 929, 932

Constitutive phenotypes, 390, 391

Consumers, 521, 521, 1037, 1037. See also Heterotrophs

in aquatic biomes, 1052, 1058

in terrestrial biomes, 1051–1052

visual synthesis of, 1086

Contact-dependent signaling, 182, 184–185

Contraception

female, 911

male, 906

Contractile rings, 225, 225

Contractile vacuoles, 100, 883, 883

Convergent evolution, 468

and desert plants, 1051, 1051

and mosses, 692, 692

of single-lens eyes, 772, 772

of vascular cambium, 696, 696

Convoluted tubules, 888, 888

Cooperative binding, 838

Copy-number variation (CNV), 318, 318

Coral reef biomes, 1059

Coral reefs

as biodiversity hotspots, 942, 942

and climate change, 1077–1080, 1079, 1080

and conservation biology, 1091

history of, 974–975

Corals, 950–952, 953

bleaching of, 1078–1079, 1079

history of, 974–975

Corey, Robert, 74

Coriolis effect, 1048, 1048

Cork cambia, 651, 651, 652, 652, 653

Corn. See Zea mays [corn]

Cornea, 773, 773

Corpus luteum, 909–911, 910

Correlations, 513

and causation, 513

Corridors, 1092–1093, 1093

Cortex [brain]

auditory, 770

cerebral, 777–780, 778, 779

primary motor, 779, 779–780

primary somatosensory, 779, 779–780

visual, 777

Cortex [kidney], 886–887, 887

Cortex [plant], 614, 614, 646, 647, 651

Cortisol, 814, 817t, 818

Countercurrent exchange, 831, 832

Countercurrent flow, 831, 831, 832

Countercurrent multipliers, 888–890, 889

Covalent bonds, 33, 33

CpG islands, 379, 380

Crabs, 962

Cranial nerves, 754, 755

Craniates, 964. See also Vertebrates

Cranium, 966, 967

Crassulacean acid metabolism (CAM), 603–604, 604

Creationists, 426, 432

Crenarchaeota, 545

Crick, Francis H. C., 53, 55, 57, 248–249, 257, 837

CRISPR. See Clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPR)

Crisscross inheritance, 348, 348–350, 349

Cro-Magnons, 494, 494–495

Crocodiles, 970

Crops. See Agriculture

Cross-bridge cycles, 789–790, 790

Cross-bridges, 789

Crosscurrent flow, 834, 835

Crosses. See also Artificial selection

and crisscross inheritance, 348, 348–350, 349

and flowers, 632–634

of plants, 328, 329

reciprocal, 329

test, 332, 332, 333t

Crossing over, 227, 227, 354

and linked genes, 354, 354–355

Crown gall disease, 673–674, 674

CRP–cAMP complex, 389, 390–391, 392

Crustaceans, 962

Cryptic species, 447, 448

Ctenophores, 952, 953

phylogenetic tree for, 953–954, 954

Cultural transmission, 370

Culture, 502, 502–503

Currents, 1047, 1047–1048, 1048

Cuticle [animal], 799, 799

in ecdysozoans, 959–960

Cuticle [plant], 602, 602–603

and innate immunity, 924, 924

Cyanobacteria, 544, 544. See also Bacteria

evolution of, 146

and evolution of photosynthesis, 170–171, 171, 557

Cycads, 699–700, 700

Cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP), 188, 188

Cyclic electron transport, 166, 166

Cyclin-dependent kinases (CDK), 233, 233–235, 235

Cyclins, 233, 233–235, 235

Cysteine, 71, 72

Cystic fibrosis

and genetic mapping, 357

and mutations, 298–299, 299

Cytochrome c, 141, 142

Cytokines, 926–927

Cytokinesis, 220, 225, 225–226

Cytokinins, 647, 648t, 650

Cytoplasm, 14, 103

Cytosine (C), 41, 41, 54, 54

Cytoskeletons, 102, 103, 103, 199, 200–206, 554, 554–555

Cytosol, 103

and signal amplification, 188, 188, 189

Cytotoxic T cells, 924, 934–935, 935, 935t

D

Daeschler, Edward, 481

Darwin, Charles, 432

and the appendix, 872

and artificial selection, 15, 370, 1084

and blending inheritance, 326–327, 334–335

and competition, 1024

and evolution, 17, 47, 326

and Galápagos finches, 435

and homology, 969

and human evolution, 486, 488, 504

and natural selection, 432–436, 459, 1008

and phototropism, 657

and the scientific method, 4

and sexual selection, 437–438, 500

and speciation, 459

and species, 446

and taxonomy, 464

and variation, 426, 1084

Darwin, Francis, 657

Darwin’s finches. See Galápagos finches

Dating, radiometric, 477–478, 478

Daughter strands, 248, 248

Dawkins, Marion, 782

Day-neutral plants, 662, 662, 663

Dead zones, 1082, 1083

Deciduous forest biomes, 1050, 1054

Decomposers, 521, 522, 1037, 1037

in aquatic biomes, 1052

fungi as, 718, 718

in terrestrial biomes, 1051

Deep-sea biomes, 1060

Deforestation, 1084, 1085

Delayed hypersensitivity reactions, 935

Deleterious mutations, 311–312, 312, 427, 460–461

Deletions, 301, 301–302

Demography, 1011–1013

Denaturation, 76, 258, 259

Dendrites, 743, 743, 744

Dendritic cells, 924, 925, 926

Dendrogramma enigmatica [animal], 954, 956, 973

Denisovans, 494–495

Denitrification, 540

Density, population, 1005, 1005

Density-dependent factors, 1009

Density-dependent mortality, 683, 683, 704

Density-independent factors, 1009–1010, 1010

Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), 13, 13, 40–42, 42, 50. See also Ribonucleic acid (RNA)

composition of, 54, 54–55

damage to, 303–304, 304

function of, 50–53, 56–57

I-7

isolation and sequencing of, 257–264

packaging of, 58, 58

repair of, 304–306, 305, 306

and replication, 248, 248–254

structure of, 55, 55–56

and transcription, 60, 60

Deoxyribose, 53, 53

Depolarization, 746

and sensory transduction, 763

Dermis, 199, 199–200

Descent of Man, The [Darwin], 437, 486

Desert biomes, 1050, 1055

Desiccation, 600

Desiccation tolerance, 600–601, 601

and leaves, 602–604, 603

Desmosomes, 208, 209, 210t

Deuterostomes, 948, 949, 956, 963–964

fossils of, 973

phylogenetic tree for, 963

Development, embryonic, 400–403

combinatorial control in, 412–415, 413, 414

and complex multicellularity, 585–587

and contact-dependent signaling, 184–185, 191

and endocrine systems, 808, 809, 809–811

and gene dosage, 302

hierarchical control of, 404–410

and neoteny, 496

and phylogeny, 948, 949

and pregnancy, 914–918

visual synthesis of, 419, 916–917

Diabetes mellitus, 813

Diaphragm, 832–833, 833, 834

Diaphysis, 801, 802

Diastole, 847, 847

Diatoms, 569, 569

Dideoxynucleotides, 262, 263

Diet, 857, 860, 860–861, 860t, 861t

Dietary minerals, 860, 860

Differentiation, 400

and complex multicellularity, 585–587

Diffusion, 96, 96, 97, 828

facilitated, 96, 97

and gas exchange, 828, 828–830, 829

and multicellularity, 580–581

and prokaryotic cell size, 530–531, 531

Digestion, 864–872, 867, 868, 869, 870, 871

intracellular vs. extracellular, 864

sites of, 865t

Digestive tracts, 864, 864, 869–870, 870

Dikarya, 728–729, 729

Dikaryotic (n + n) cells, 724, 725

Dilger, William, 986

Dinoflagellates, 570, 570

Dinosaurs

and birds, 479, 480

extinction of, 6, 474, 481, 975

and the fossil record, 474, 474

Diploblastic animals, 948, 949

Diploid cells, 223, 556, 557

Directional selection, 435, 435–436

Disaccharides. See Polysaccharides

Diseases and disorders. See also Cancer; Drugs; Malaria; Medicine; Pathogens; Sickle-cell anemia

AIDS, 473

and allele frequency, 434

and amoebas, 565

aneurysms, 843

autoimmune, 922–923, 936

and complex traits, 364–365, 365, 373–375, 374, 375

cystic fibrosis, 298–299, 299, 357

diabetes, 813

Down syndrome, 320–321

emphysema, 311–312, 312, 341–342

and epidemics, 21, 1088–1090, 1090

epidermolysis bullosa, 205, 205

and genetic engineering, 268

and genetic information, 52

and genetic risk factors, 295, 311–312, 312

hemophilia, 352, 353

human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), 277, 277–278, 278, 313, 313

and human microbiome, 525–528, 550–551

human papillomavirus (HPV), 176–178, 177

immunological, 927

influenza, 937, 937

Klinefelter syndrome, 322, 322

lactose intolerance, 867

and mitochondrial inheritance, 360, 360

and nondisjunction, 319–322, 320

osteoporosis, 802

phenylketonuria (PKU), 341

tobacco mosaic virus, 287, 287–288, 288, 671, 671–673, 682

tuberculosis, 937–938, 938, 1090

Turner syndrome, 322, 322

and viruses, 287

Dispersal [life cycle]

of seeds, 636, 636, 637

of spores, 623–626, 626

visual synthesis of, 710

Dispersal [speciation], 451–455, 453, 454, 457

human influences on, 1088–1089, 1089

Displays, 983, 983

advertisement, 996, 996

Disruptive selection, 436, 437

and sympatric speciation, 456, 457, 457

Distal convoluted tubules, 888, 888, 891

Disturbances, 1034, 1034–1035

Divergence, 302

and speciation, 451

Diversity. See Biodiversity; Genetic diversity

Dizygotic (fraternal) twins, 371, 371

DNA. See Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)

DNA editing, 267, 267–268

DNA fingerprinting, 314–316

DNA ligase, 252, 252, 304–305

DNA polymerase, 251

DNA sequencing, 263, 263–264

and behavior, 987–989, 989

of genomes, 272–274, 274

and human evolution, 487–488, 488

and phylogeny, 948

and population genetics, 428–430

and species, 447

DNA transposons, 280, 281

DNA typing, 314–316

and multiple alleles, 341

Dobzhansky, Theodosius, 17, 504

Dogs

and learning, 990

and pheromones, 823, 823

Domains, 17, 17, 467, 467

Dominant traits, 328, 329

incomplete, 332–333, 333

in pedigrees, 339, 340

Dormancy, 628

and phototropism, 664

and phytochrome, 660

Dorsal nerve cords, 964, 967

Dosage compensation, 380

Dosage [gene], 302

Double bonds, 33

Double fertilization, 635, 635

visual synthesis of, 710

Double helices, 41–42, 42, 50, 55, 55

Down syndrome, 319–321, 320

Downstream genes, 412, 415

Dragonflies, 962

history of, 974–975

Dreyer, William, 931–932

Drosophila melanogaster [fruit fly]

behavior of, 987, 987–989, 988

biological clocks in, 993

development of, 404–410, 405, 407, 408, 409

dosage compensation in, 380

genetic variation in, 429–431

genetically engineered, 411, 411–412

genome of, 272–273, 278, 278t

innate immune system of, 926

life cycle of, 404, 404–405

linked genes in, 353, 353–357

X-linked genes in, 348, 348–351, 349, 350, 351

Drugs. See also Diseases and disorders; Medicine; Vaccination

antibiotics, 551

and genomes, 278

penicillin, 922

and personalized medicine, 375

from plants, 676, 677t

resistance to, 19, 87, 1089–1091

Dulbecco, Renato, 286

Duodenum, 866, 867

Duplication and divergence, 302–303

Duplications, 301, 301–302

Dynamic instability, 202, 202

Dynein, 202, 203

E

E (exit) sites, 78, 78

Eardrums, 769, 769

Ears, 768–771, 769

Earth. See also Climate change; Global warming

composition of, 9, 9

and geological processes, 433, 1063

and glaciations, 518–520, 519, 977

history of, 478–479, 479

history of atmospheric carbon dioxide, 512, 512, 514, 514, 517–520, 519, 520, 1074–1076

history of atmospheric oxygen, 146, 171, 478, 523, 523, 549, 591

history of temperature, 518–519, 519

and plate tectonics, 517, 520, 520

temperature of, and water, 37

Earthworms, 957, 957

Eccles, John, 749

Ecdysone, 809t, 810–811, 811, 817

Ecdysozoans, 959–963

phylogenetic tree for, 960

Echidnas, 971

Echinodermata, 964, 965

Echolocation, 771, 771

Ecological footprint, 1072–1073, 1073

Ecological isolation, 450, 450

Ecological niches, 448

I-8

Ecological species concept (ESC), 448

Ecological systems, 19–20, 20

and evolution, 20

Ecological Theater and the Evolutionary Play, The [Hutchinson], 20

Ecology, 1004. See also Populations

visual synthesis of, 1040–1041

Ecosystem services, 1091

Ecosystems, 1036–1039

visual synthesis of, 1086–1087

Ectoderm, 400, 401, 914, 915

Ectomycorrhizae, 615, 615, 720

Ectotherms

visual synthesis of, 859

Ediacaran fossils, 972–973, 973

Eggs, 231, 232, 899

development of, 911, 912

as totipotent cells, 400, 400–401

Ehrlich, Paul, 682, 925, 927, 930, 1085

Ejaculatory duct, 906, 906

EKG. See Electrocardiograms (EKG)

Elastin, 843

Electrocardiograms (EKG), 848, 848

Electrochemical gradients, 98–99, 99

Electrolytes

balance of, 876–881, 877, 879

and crosscurrent multipliers, 889

Electromagnetic receptors, 764

Electromagnetic spectrum, 160, 160

Electron carriers, 133

Electron donors, 155

Electron transport chain, 133, 134, 140–142, 141

cyclic, 166, 166

photosynthetic, 155, 155–157

visual synthesis of, 173

Electronegativity, 34

Electrons, 30, 30

and orbitals, 30–31, 31

valence, 33

Electrophoresis, gel, 259–260, 260

Electroreceptors, 764

Elements, 30

periodic table of, 31–32, 32

Elena, Santiago, 18

Elongation, 62, 62, 81–83, 82, 83

Elongation factors, 82, 82

Elton, Charles, 1022

Embryos, 900, 914, 915. See also Development, embryonic

visual synthesis of, 916

Emerson, Robert, 162, 163

Emigration, and population size, 1007, 1007

Emphysema, 311–312, 312, 341–342

Endangered species, 22, 22, 1091, 1092, 1092

Endemic species, 1019, 1067

and biodiversity hotspots, 1091

Endergonic reactions, 121, 121

Endocrine signaling, 182, 183

Endocrine systems, 808–813

of animals, 818, 818–822, 819

Endocytosis, 104, 105, 554, 554

Endoderm, 400, 401, 914, 915

Endodermis, 614, 614, 951, 951

Endomembrane system, 104, 104–111, 554, 554

Endomycorrhizae, 615, 615, 720

visual synthesis of, 711

Endophytes, 720

Endoplasmic reticulum (ER), 102, 102, 103, 105, 106, 554, 554

rough vs. smooth, 105, 106

Endoskeletons, 797, 799–800, 800

Endosperm, 635, 635

Endosymbiosis, 558–559. See also Symbiosis

and organelles, 171, 171, 206, 527–528

and origin of photosynthesis, 570–572, 572

Endothelial cells, 887, 888

Endotherms, visual synthesis of, 858

Energetic coupling, 123, 123–124

Energy. See also Gibbs free energy (G)

activation (E_A), 124–125, 125

and anabolism, 122, 122

and cellular respiration, 144, 144

chemical, 118–119

and ecosystems, 1037–1038, 1038, 1086–1087

from fossil fuels, 154

kinetic, 118, 118

and metabolism, 14–15, 119, 119

nuclear, 1081

and nutrient uptake, 614–615

potential, 118, 118, 142, 142

solar, 169, 1081, 1081

and thermodynamics, 9–10, 119–120

wind, 1081, 1081

Energy balance, 857

Energy intake, 857

Energy levels, 31, 31

Energy use, 857

by humans, 1072–1073, 1073

Enhancers, 61, 61, 382, 382

Enthalpy (H), 121–122

Entropy (S), 9–10, 120, 121–122

Envelopes, 287

Environmental risk factors, 365

and genetic risk factors, 367, 367–368, 368

Environmental variation, 16

Enzymes, 40, 93, 94, 124–129

and activation energy, 124–125, 125

allosteric, 127–128, 128

and chemical reactions, 125, 125–126, 126

influences on, 127, 128

specificity of, 126–127

Eosinophils, 924, 925

Epidemics, 21, 1088–1090, 1090

Epidermis [animal], 199, 199, 951, 951

intermediate filaments in, 205, 205

Epidermis [plant], 601, 602

Epidermolysis bullosa, 205, 205

Epididymis, 906, 906, 907

Epigenetic mechanisms of gene regulation, 379

Epiglottis, 865, 865

Epinephrine. See Adrenaline

Epiphysis, 801, 802

Epiphytes, 604, 691

Epistasis, 338, 338–339, 374

and Punnett squares, 338

Epithelium, 199, 201, 201, 204, 204, 952

and cell junctions, 208–210, 209

EPSP. See Excitatory postsynaptic potentials (EPSP)

Equational division, 228. See also Meiosis II

ER. See Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)

ESC. See Ecological species concept (ESC)

Escherichia coli [bacterium], 531, 532

and cell division, 220

and digestion, 869

and DNA repair, 304–305

and experimental evolution, 18

genome of, 278t, 281–282, 282

and transcription, 59, 60

transcriptional regulation in, 388–389, 389

and translation, 83

and tree of life, 16–17, 17

viral infection of, 392–393, 393

Esophagus, 864, 864, 865

Essay on the Principle of Population, An [Malthus], 433, 1004

Essential amino acids, 857, 860, 860t

Estradiol, 909, 910

Estrogen, 814, 816t, 818, 820, 908, 909, 910

Estrus cycles, 911

Ethanol fermentation, 145, 145–146

Ethics. See also Public policy

and genetic engineering, 264, 267, 403

and genetic testing, 342

and personal genomes, 274

and regenerative medicine, 403