Index

Page I-1

bold face indicates a definition

italics indicate a figure

t indicates a table

Please note: Page number links are approximate.

A

A (aminoacyl) sites, 78, 78

ABC model, 413–414, 414

Abiotic factors, 1004

Abomasum, 871, 871

Abortions, spontaneous, 322, 322–323, 323

Abscisic acid, 647, 648t, 661

Absolute temperature (T), 121–122

Absorption, 864, 866–868, 867, 868, 869

Accessory pigments, 161

Acclimatization, 821

Acetyl-coenzyme A (acetyl-CoA), 135, 135, 137

and the citric acid cycle, 138–140, 139

Acetylation, 378–379, 379

Acetylcholine, and nerve cells, 753, 754

Acidic solutions, 37

and Archaea, 546, 546

in stomachs, 865–866

Acoelomates, 947–948, 948

Acorn worms, 964, 964

Acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS), 473

Acquired immunity. See Adaptive immunity

Acrosomes, 906, 907

ACTH. See Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)

Actin, 200, 201, 206t

in muscles, 786–790, 788, 789, 790

in slime molds, 566

Action potentials, 746–748, 747

propagation of, 748, 748–749, 749

and sensory receptors, 764–766, 765, 766

and twitch contractions, 795, 795

Activation energy (EA), 124–125, 125

Activators, 127, 128, 387, 387

Active sites, 125, 125–126, 126

Active transport, 97–100, 98

primary, 97–98, 98

secondary, 98–99, 99

Adaptation [sensory signals], 765

Adaptive immunity, 923, 923t. See also Antibodies; Cell-mediated immunity

and B cells, 928–934

and T cells, 934–936

Adaptive radiations, 454, 455

of angiosperms, 704

Addition rule, 334, 334

Adenine (A), 41, 41, 54, 54

Adenosine diphosphate (ADP), 119, 119

Adenosine monophosphate (AMP), 119, 119

cyclic (cAMP), 188, 188

Adenosine triphosphate (ATP), 15, 116, 119, 132

and active transport, 97–98, 98

and the Calvin cycle, 157, 158

and cellular energy, 119

and cellular respiration, 132–133, 133, 149, 149–150

and the citric acid cycle, 138–140, 139

and the cross-bridge cycle, 789–790, 790

hydrolysis of, 122–123, 123

and phosphorylation, 187, 187

synthesis of, 142, 142–144, 143, 164–166, 165

Adenoviruses, 287, 288

ADH. See Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)

Adherens junctions, 208, 209, 210t

ADP. See Adenosine diphosphate (ADP)

Adrenal glands, 818, 821

Adrenal medulla, 821

Adrenaline, 814, 817t, 818, 844

and cell signaling, 180, 183, 188

and fight-or-flight responses, 848

Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), 815–816, 816t, 818, 820–821

Advantageous mutations, 313, 313–314, 314, 427, 460–461

Advertisement displays, 996, 996

Aerobic reactions, 535

Age structure of populations, 1010, 1011, 1011

Aging, and telomeres, 256

Agonist muscles, 795

Agriculture, 595–597. See also Green Revolution; Rice; Wheat; Zea mays [corn]

among insects, 1030

and artificial selection, 436, 596

and biodiversity, 1084–1085, 1085

and C4 plants, 606

and conservation biology, 1092–1093

and environmental risk factors, 365, 365–366

and evolution, 21, 502–503

and fertilizers, 616–617, 1082–1084, 1083

and fungi, 718, 733–734, 734

and genetic diversity, 708–709, 709

and genetic engineering, 266, 266–267, 596–597, 617, 674, 683–684

and integrated pest management, 684

and plant defenses, 683–684, 684

and plant hormones, 649–650

and polyploidy, 279–280

and sustainable development, 1093–1094

AIDS. See Acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS)

Albinism, 340, 341

Aldosterone, 892, 893

Algae, 562. See also Chlamydomonas [alga]; Volvox [alga]

green, 566–568, 568

and ocean acidification, 1080, 1080

red, 566, 567, 580

Alkaloids, 675, 677t

Allantois, 904, 905

Allard, Henry, 662

Allele frequencies, 427

and natural selection, 434

Alleles, 310–311, 311, 329

multiple, 340–341

segregation of, 332, 333

Allergies, 925, 930

Allopatric speciation, 451–456, 457

visual synthesis of, 461

Allosteric effect, 387, 387

and transcriptional regulation, 389, 390, 390

Allosteric enzymes, 127–128, 128

a carbons, 40, 40, 70, 70

a helices, 74, 75

Alpine biomes, 1050, 1053

Alternation of generations, 620–624, 621, 622, 622, 624

evolution of, 688–689

Alternative splicing, 65, 65, 383, 383

and antibody diversity, 933

and genome size, 279

Altruistic behavior, 998

and group selection, 998

and kin selection, 999, 999–1001, 1000

reciprocal, 999

Alvarez, Walter, 6

Alveolata, 570, 570

Alveoli, 833, 834

Amacrine cells, 777

Amber, 1068, 1068

Amine hormones, 814, 814

Amino acid replacement, 297, 298

Amino acids, 39

essential, 857, 860, 860t

in proteins, 40, 40

and side chains, 70, 70–72, 71

Amino ends, 72, 72

Amino groups, 40, 40, 70, 70

Aminoacyl tRNA synthetases, 79, 79

Ammonia. See also Fertilizers

and nitrogenous wastes, 881, 882

Amnion, 904, 905

Amniotes, 970, 971

Amniotic eggs, 970

Amoebas, 554, 555, 564–565, 565

photosynthetic, 559

Amoebozoans, 564–566, 565, 566

AMP. See Adenosine monophosphate (AMP)

Amphibians, 970

as ecological warning, 1090–1091, 1091

hearts of, 845, 845

history of, 975

life cycle of, 970, 970

Amphioxus, 964–965, 965

Amphipathic molecules, 90

Amplification, 257–259, 258

of hormones, 815, 815–817

Amylase, 865, 865t, 867

Anabolism, 117, 117, 120

energy in, 122, 122

Anaerobic metabolism, 144–146, 145

Analogy, 468. See also Convergent evolution

Anammox (anaerobic ammonia oxidation) reactions, 540

Anaphase I [meiosis], 227–228, 228

Anaphase II [meiosis], 228, 229

Anaphase [mitosis], 224, 224–225

Anatomy, and ecological systems, 19–20

Anchors, 93, 94

Anemones, sea, 950–952, 951

Angiosperms, 600, 628–638. See also Flowers

biodiversity of, 702–709, 703, 705, 706, 708

and coevolution, 704

evolution of, 689

genomes of, 279–280, 280

phylogenetic tree for, 703

visual synthesis of, 710–711

Angiotensin II, 892, 893

Page I-2

Animal husbandry. See Agriculture; Cattle

Animal rights movement, 504

Animals, 580

biodiversity of, 1067

cells of, 101–103, 102

circulatory systems of, 840–849, 841, 842, 844, 845, 846

colonization of the land by, 974–975

and consciousness, 782

digestion in, 864–872, 867, 868, 869, 870, 871

diploblastic vs. triploblastic, 948, 949

endocrine systems of, 818, 818–822, 819

evolution of, 589, 589, 972–975, 973, 974

extracellular matrix in, 212, 212–214

feeding by, 861, 861–864, 862, 863

metabolism in, 852–857, 853, 854, 855, 856

muscles of, 198, 198, 786, 786–792, 787, 788

nervous systems of, 740–743

nutrition and diet of, 857, 860, 860–861, 860t, 861t

phylogenetic tree for, 946, 947

sensory systems of, 762, 762–766, 763, 764

skeletons of, 797–804, 798, 799, 800

visual synthesis of, 977

Annealing, 258, 259

Annelid worms, 956–957, 957

fossils of, 973

Annual clocks, 993

Anoxygenic reactions, 535–536, 536

Antagonist muscles, 794, 794–795

Anterior pituitary gland, 819, 819

Anthers, 630, 630

and crossing plants, 328, 329

Anthropocene Period, 1072–1073

Antibodies, 929, 929–930

clonal selection of, 930, 930–931

diversity of, 931–934, 932, 933

Anticodons, 78, 78

Antidiuretic hormone (ADH), 816t, 818, 820, 891

and behavior, 989

and urine, 891–892, 892

Antigen-presenting cells, 935, 935

Antigenic drift, 937, 937

Antigenic shift, 937, 937

Antigenic variation, 939

Antigens, 929

Antioxidants, 167, 168

Antiparallel strands, 56

Antirrhinum majus [snapdragon], 333, 333

Ants

as eusocial insects, 1001

fungal infection of, 731, 731

history of, 1068

and pheromones, 824, 824

and plant defenses, 677, 677–678, 678

and relatedness, 1000, 1000

and symbiosis with fungi, 1030

and symbiosis with plants, 678, 678

Aortic bodies, 835, 836

Aortic valves, 846, 847

Apes, 486–487

phylogenetic tree for, 486, 487

Apical dominance, 650, 650

Apomixis, 638

Appendicular skeleton, 800, 800

Appendix, 871–872

Aquaporins, 97, 876

Aquatic biomes, 1052, 1057–1059, 1058–1060

Aqueous humor, 773, 773

Aqueous solutions, 35

pH of, 37

Arabidopsis thaliana [mustard plant]

and circadian clock, 663–664

floral development of, 412–414, 413, 414

genes of, 559

genome of, 278, 278t

growth of, 661

Archaea, 14, 530, 532, 534, 535

biodiversity of, 545–548, 546

genomes of, 279, 280

and global warming, 1074

phylogenetic tree for, 17, 534, 542, 545, 545–546

vs. Bacteria and Eukarya, 534t

Archaeopteryx lithographica [feathered dinosaur], 479, 480

Archaeplastida, 566–568, 567, 568

Ardi [hominin], 489, 490

Aristotle, 326, 726

Arnold, William, 162, 163

Arrhenius, Svante, 126

Arteries, 841–843, 842

pulmonary, 846, 846

Arterioles, 841, 842

Arthropods, 960–963

history of, 974

phylogenetic tree for, 962

and succession, 1035, 1035

Artificial selection, 15, 15, 370, 436

and agriculture, 436, 596, 637, 709

and behavior, 986–987, 987

Ascomycetes, 729, 729–731

life cycle of, 730, 730

Asexual reproduction, 220, 898–900, 899, 900

and the biological species concept, 447–448

and evolution, 901, 901–903, 902

in plants, 638, 638–639

Assimilation, 538, 538

Assisted migration, 1093

Associative learning, 990

Assortment, principle of independent, 335–339, 336, 338

Astrocytes, 744–745

Atomic mass, 30

Atoms, 30–32

ATP. See Adenosine triphosphate (ATP)

ATP synthase, 142, 142

Atrioventricular (AV) nodes, 847–848, 848

Atrioventricular (AV) valves, 846, 846

Auditory cortex, 770

Australopithecus afarensis [hominin], 489, 489, 490

Autocrine signaling, 182, 184, 823

Autoimmune diseases, 922–923, 936

Autonomic nervous system, 755–756, 756

and homeostasis, 756–757, 757

Autotrophs, 116, 117. See also Primary producers

Auxin, 647–650, 648t, 649

Avery, Oswald, 50–52

Avirulent pathogens, 670

Axial skeleton, 800, 800

Axillary buds, 644, 644

and apical dominance, 650

Axon hillocks, 743, 743, 752

Axons, 743, 743, 744

B

B cells, 924, 928

and antibodies, 929–930

Bacteria, 14, 530–534, 532. See also Escherichia coli [bacterium]; Streptococcus pneumoniae [bacterium]

binary fission of, 898, 899

biodiversity of, 540–544, 544

and the carbon cycle, 535–538, 536, 537, 538

cell size of, 530–531, 531

and evolution experiments, 17–19

genomes of, 279, 280

gram-positive, 543–544

magnetotactic, 993

myxo-, 531, 532

nitrogen fixing, 539, 539

as pathogens, 922, 923, 937–938, 938

phylogenetic tree for, 17, 534, 540, 542, 542, 543

and plant genomes, 673–674, 674

proteo-, 543, 543

symbiotic, 562, 562

vs. Archaea and Eukarya, 534t

Bacteriochlorophyll, 536, 537

Bacteriophages, 287, 288, 392, 393

Balancing selection, 434

Ball-and-socket joints, 802, 802

Baltimore, David, 286

Bananas, 595

Baptista, Luis, 996

Barcode of Life, 447

Bark, 651, 651, 652

and innate immunity, 924, 924

visual synthesis of, 711

Barnacles, 962

Basal lamina, 199, 199, 213, 213

Basal resistance, 671, 671

Base excision repair, 305, 305

Base pairing

and hydrogen bonds, 56, 56

and translation, 79, 79

Base stacking, 56, 57

Bases, 41, 53

complementary, 56, 56

purine vs. pyridamine, 41, 41–42, 54, 54

Basic solutions, 37

Basidiomycetes, 729, 729, 731–733, 732

life cycle of, 732, 733

Basilar membranes, 769, 770

Basophils, 924, 925

Bats, 972

and echolocation, 771, 771

and fungal infections, 719

and reciprocal altruism, 999

Bdelloid rotifers, 902–903

Beavers, 1034, 1034

Bees

and behavior, 988, 988–989

and communication, 997, 997

as eusocial insects, 1001

history of, 1068, 1068

and language, 503

and pheromones, 823

as pollinators, 19, 19

Beetles, 962

history of, 1068

Behavior, 982

altruistic, 998–1001

components of, 982–983

Page I-3

and DNA sequencing, 987–989, 989

and ecological systems, 19–20

and fixed action patterns, 983–984, 984

and hormones, 985–986, 986

and learning, 989–992, 991, 992

and the nervous system, 984–985

social, 997–1001, 998

stereotyped, 983–984, 984

visual synthesis of, 858–859

Behavioral isolation, 450

Bennett, J. Claude, 931–932

Benson, Andrew, 159

Bernard, Claude, 757

b barrels, 86, 86

b -oxidation, 148, 148

b sheets, 74, 75

Bilateral symmetry, 590, 947, 947, 948

Bilateria, 948, 948, 956–966

phylogenetic tree for, 949

Bilayers, 90, 91

Bile, 867, 868

Binary fission, 220–221, 221

Binding, cooperative, 838

Binding affinity, 190

Biodiversity, 522, 1091. See also Genetic diversity

of angiosperms, 702–709, 703, 705, 706, 708

of antibodies, 931–934, 932, 933

of Archaea, 545–548, 546

of Bacteria, 540–544, 544

of bryophytes, 690–693, 691, 692, 693

and the carbon cycle, 522

and climate change, 1077–1080, 1079, 1080

and complex cellularity, 592

and conservation biology, 1091

of eukaryotes, 562–572

of ferns, 697, 697–699, 698

of fungi, 726–734, 729, 732

of gymnosperms, 699–702, 700, 701, 702

and history of reefs, 975

of horsetails, 697, 697–699

hotspots for, 941–943, 942

and island biogeography, 1019

and the latitudinal diversity gradient, 1066, 1066–1067, 1067

of lycophytes, 694, 694–697, 695, 696

measurement of, 1032

and predator–prey dynamics, 736

and resource partitioning, 1025, 1025

threats to, 1092, 1092

of vertebrates, 966–972, 967, 968, 969, 970, 971

visual synthesis of, 976–977

Biodiversity hotspots, 1091

Biofuels, 1083

Biogeochemical cycles, 1061 See also Carbon cycle; Nitrogen cycle; Phosphorus cycle; Sulfur cycle

Biological species concept (BSC), 446–449

and bacteria, 542–543

Biologists, 4, 1094, 1094–1095

Biology, 4

oceanic, 1057–1059, 1060

Biomes, 1046, 1050, 1050

terrestrial, 1050–1051, 1052–1057

Biomineralization, 516–517, 517

Biotic factors, 1004

Biotrophic pathogens, 669

Biparental inheritance, 359

Bipedalism, 489, 495–496, 496

Bipolar cells, 776–777

Birds, 970, 971

and acquisition of birdsong, 996, 996–997

and consciousness, 504

and culture, 503, 503

and dinosaurs, 479, 480

Galápagos finches, 435, 435, 454, 455

hearts of, 846, 846–847

and learning, 990

respiratory systems of, 834–835, 835

and sexual reproduction, 901, 901

Birdsong, 996, 996–997

Birth, 918, 918

and population size, 1007, 1007

Bissel, Mina, 215

Bivalents, 227, 227

Bivalves, 958, 959

history of, 974

Bladders, 885, 885

Blakemore, Richard, 993

Blastocysts, 400, 401, 914, 915

visual synthesis of, 916

Blastoderm, cellular, 404, 404

Blastulas, 588, 588–589, 914, 914

Blending inheritance, 326–327, 327, 334–335

Blood, 829

composition of, 835–837, 836

flow of, 841–843, 842

glucose levels in, 147

oxygen levels in, 835

pH of, 37

regulation of, 844, 892–893, 893

Blood cells, red, 198, 198

and active transport, 99, 99–100

Blood cells, white, 924, 925

and infection, 823

Blood groups, 428, 428t

Blood–brain barrier, 744–745

Bohr, Christian, 839–840

Bonds, chemical, 32–35

of carbon, 38, 38

covalent, 33, 33

double, 33

and energy, 118–119

glycosidic, 43, 43

hydrogen, 35–36, 36

ionic, 34, 34–35

nonpolar covalent, 34

peptide, 40, 40, 72, 72–73

phosphodiester, 41, 41

polar covalent, 33–34, 34

Bone marrow, 801, 802

and B cells, 928, 928, 936

and endoskeletons, 799–800, 800

formation of, 801, 801

Bony fish, 968–969, 969

Borlaug, Norman, 637–638, 684, 734

Borthwick, H. A., 659

Bosch, Karl, 617

Bowman, William, 885

Bowman’s capsules, 885, 885–886, 887, 887

Brachiopods, 973–974

Brachydactyly, 339, 340

Brains, 741, 742

function of, 777–778

organization of, 778, 778–780, 779

size of, 496–498, 497

Brainstems, 777, 778

Brakefield, Paul, 593

Branching

of roots, 655, 655

of shoots, 644, 644–646

Breathing

and the citric acid cycle, 138

regulation of, 835, 836

Breeding. See Artificial selection

Brenner, Sydney, 59

Bridges, Calvin B., 350

Bronchi, primary, 833, 834

Bronchioles, 833, 834

Brown algae, 568–569, 569, 580

Bryophytes, 600. See also Hornworts; Liverworts; Mosses

alternation of generations in, 621–623, 622, 623

biodiversity of, 690–693, 691, 692, 693

desiccation tolerance in, 600–601, 601

BSC. See Biological species concept (BSC)

Bud scales, 646, 646

Budding, 898, 899

Bulbourethral glands, 906, 906

Bulk flow, 582, 583, 829

and circulatory systems, 829, 829–830

and multicellularity, 581–582, 582

Bundle sheaths, 605, 605–606

Burgess Shale, 476, 476, 973

Bursa of Fabricius, 928, 928

Butterflies, 962, 963

life cycle of, 1011–1013, 1012

and population dynamics, 1004, 1006, 1006–1008

C

C3 plants, 605

C4 plants, 605

C-value paradox, 279, 281

Cadherins, 206–207, 207, 208, 210t

and complex multicellularity, 583

Caenorhabditis elegans [nematode worm], 415

development of, 415, 415–417, 416

dosage compensation in, 380

genome of, 278, 278t

Calcitonin, 816t, 821

Calmette, Albert, 938

Calmodulin, 792

Calvin, Melvin, 158, 159

Calvin cycle, 155, 155, 157, 157–160

visual synthesis of, 172

CAM. See Crassulacean acid metabolism (CAM)

Cambrian explosion, 973–974

cAMP. See Cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP)

Cancer, 176–178, 177

and cell-cycle checkpoints, 236

metastasis of, 213, 213–214, 239

and mutations, 238–239, 239, 294, 294–295

and oncogenes, 236–238

and signaling errors, 192–193

and telomerase, 256

visual synthesis of, 418

Canines [teeth], 863, 863

Cann, Rebecca, 491–493, 499

Cannon, Walter, 757

Capacitation, 912

Capillaries, 841, 842

pulmonary, 833, 833

Capsids, 277

Page I-4

Carbohydrates, 39, 42

and the Calvin cycle, 158, 160

complex, 42

structure of, 42, 42–43, 43

transport of, in phloem, 611, 611–612, 612

Carbon, 37–39

atoms of, 30, 30

bonds of, 38, 38

and metabolism, 116, 117

molecules containing, 38, 38–39, 39

Carbon cycle, 510

and bacteria, 535–538, 536, 537, 538

and biodiversity, 522

and evolution, 522–523, 523, 548–549

and food webs, 1036–1037, 1037

human influences on, 513–515, 514, 1073, 1073–1082

short-term, 510–515, 511, 512, 514, 515

visual synthesis of, 1086–1087

Carbon dioxide

in the Calvin cycle, 157–159

and hemoglobin, 840

history of atmospheric, 512, 512, 514, 514, 517–520, 519, 520, 1074–1076

and leaves, 601–602, 602

and respiratory systems, 828–830, 829

seasonal oscillation in, 510–511, 511

Carboxyl ends, 72, 72

Carboxyl groups, 40, 40, 70, 70

Carboxylation, 157, 157

Cardiac cycles, 847, 847

Cardiac muscles, 787, 787, 847

organization of, 787, 787–789, 788

Cardiac output (CO), 848–849

Cardiovascular systems. See Circulatory systems

Carnivores, 521, 521, 971

evolution of, 592

Caron, Joan, 215

Carotenoids, 161

Carotid bodies, 835, 836

Carpels, 629, 629–630, 630

Carriers, 97, 97

Carrying capacity (K), 1008–1009, 1009

Carsonella rudii, 25

Cartilage, 798, 798

and bone formation, 801, 801

in fish, 967–968, 968

Cartilaginous fish, 968, 968

Case 1: The First Cell, 25–27, 26, 27

and cell membranes, 91–92

and cellular respiration, 146

and chemical reactions, 128–129

and the citric acid cycle, 139–140

and the genetic code, 83

and molecules of life, 45–47

and nucleic acids, 59

Case 2: Cancer, 176–187, 177

metastasis of, 213, 213–214

and oncogenes, 236–239

and signaling errors, 192–193

Case 3: Personal genome, 244–246

and ancestry, 358–359, 359, 360

and genetic risk factors, 294–295

and genetic testing, 342

lifestyle choices, 386

and personalized medicine, 274, 375

reducing genetic risk factors, 317–318

and regenerative medicine, 403

sequencing of, 264

Case 4: Malaria, 422–424

and coevolution, 434–435, 455–456

and natural selection, 501–502

Case 5: Human microbiome, 525–528, 526

and chloroplast symbiosis, 557–559, 559

and the immune system, 923, 925

and intestinal bacteria, 550, 550–551

and mitochondria symbiosis, 559, 560

and origin of eukaryotic cells, 560, 561

Case 6: Agriculture, 595–597

and fertilizers, 616–617

and fungi, 733–734, 734

and genetic diversity, 708–709, 709

and the Green Revolution, 637–638

and plant defenses, 683–684, 684

and plant hormones, 649–650

Case 7: Predator–Prey, 736–738

and cephalization, 742–743

and endocrine system, 821–822

and muscle types, 797

and osmoregulation, 880–881, 881

and regulation of blood flow, 843–844

Case 8: Biodiversity hotspots, 941–943, 942

and biodiversity measurements, 1032

and climate change, 1077–1080, 1079, 1080

and conservation biology, 1091

and history of reefs, 975

and island biogeography, 1019

and the latitudinal diversity gradient, 1066, 1066–1067, 1067

and resource partitioning, 1025, 1025

Casparian strips, 614, 614

Catabolism, 117, 117, 120, 122

energy in, 122, 122

Cats

calico, 381, 381

cloned, 402–403, 403

and pheromones, 823

Cattle, 971

and mutualisms, 1030, 1030

rumen of, 525–527

Causation, 513

and correlations, 513

Cavitation, 610, 610

Cecum, 871, 871

Cell adhesion, 206–207, 207

visual synthesis of, 241

Cell communication, 180–182

and complex multicellularity, 584–585, 585, 586

and endocrine systems, 822, 822–824

Cell cycle, 221, 221–222

regulation of, 233, 233–236

Cell division, 220–222. See also Meiosis I; Meiosis II; Mitosis

visual synthesis of, 240

Cell junctions, 199, 206–210, 210t

Cell-mediated immunity, 934, 934–936, 935, 936

Cell membranes, 90–94. See also Plasma membranes

Cell signaling, 182–185, 822, 822–824

visual synthesis of, 241

Cell theory, 90

Cell walls, 96, 103

and cell shape, 100, 100

in plants, 211, 211, 587–588

Cells, 12, 12–15, 13, 90. See also Organs; Tissues

and active transport, 99, 99–100

amacrine, 777

animal, 101–103, 102

antigen-presenting, 935, 935

bipolar, 776–777

blood, red, 99, 99–100, 198, 198

blood, white, 924, 925, 928

chloride, 878, 878

coenocytic, 565

companion, 611, 611

cytotoxic T, 924, 934–935, 935, 935t

dendritic, 924, 925, 926

dikaryotic (n + n), 724, 725

diploid, 223

endothelial, 887, 888

flagella of, 204, 204, 231

germ, 256, 293–294

glial, 744–745

guard, 603, 603

haploid, 223

helper T, 924, 934–935, 935, 935t

hepatocytes, 198, 198, 215

heterokaryotic, 724, 725

horizontal, 777

host, 287

induced pluripotent stem, 403

internal organization of, 100–104

Leydig, 908

mast, 924, 925, 926

memory, 924, 930, 930

microvilli of, 198, 198, 201, 201

multipotent, 401

muscle, 198, 198, 204

natural killer, 924, 925

neurons, 198, 198

neurosecretory, 811

parenchyma, 606, 607

pH of, 40

plant, 103, 103

plasma, 924, 930, 930

pluripotent, 401

pluripotent, induced, 403

procambial, 646

responding, 180, 180–181

sensory receptor, 762–763, 763

Sertoli, 909

somatic, 293–294, 294

stem, 256, 401–402

totipotent, 400–401

Cellular blastoderm, 404, 404

Cellular respiration, 132–135, 134

and first cells, 146

visual synthesis of, 173

vs. photosynthesis, 171

Cellulase, 870

Cellulose, 211, 211

Centipedes, 962

Central dogma of molecular biology, 13, 13, 52, 53, 77, 77

Central nervous system (CNS), 754–755, 755

Centromeres, 223, 223, 302

Centrosomes, 200, 200

Page I-5

Cephalization, 742–743

Cephalochordates, 964–966, 965

Cephalopods, 958, 959

Cerebellum, 777, 778

Cerebral cortex, 777–780, 778, 779

Cerebrum, 778, 778

Cervix, 908, 908

Chain terminators, 263, 263

Channels, 96–97, 97

Chaparral biomes, 1050, 1056

Chaperones, 76–77, 386

Chara corollina [alga], 621, 621

Character states, 468

Characters, 468

and phylogeny, 946

Chargaff, Erwin, 57

Checkpoints, 235–236, 236

Chelicerates, 962

history of, 974

Chemical bonds, 32–35

Chemical energy, 118–119

and cellular respiration, 132–133, 133

Chemical reactions, 35, 35, 120–124. See also Polymerase chain reactions (PCR)

aerobic, 535

anammox (anaerobic ammonia oxidation), 540

anoxygenic, 535–536, 536

energetically coupled, 123, 123–124

and enzymes, 124–129

exergonic vs. endergonic, 121, 121

and first cells, 128–129

oxidation–reduction, 133–135, 134, 155, 155, 535

oxygenic, 535

and thermodynamics, 121, 121–122

Chemiosmotic hypothesis, 143

Chemistry, 8–12

Chemoautotrophs, 537–539, 538

Chemoreceptors, 763, 763–764

and smell and taste, 766, 767

Chemotrophs, 116, 117

Chiasmata, 227, 227

Childbirth, 918, 918

Chimpanzees

and culture, 503, 503

and human lineage, 487, 487–488

and language, 503, 504

Chitin, 716, 799, 960

Chlamydomonas [alga], 556, 557, 567, 568, 587

Chlorella [alga], 158

Chloride cells, 878, 878

Chlorophyll, 112, 160–161, 161

in bacteria, 536, 537

and evolution of photosynthesis, 170

Chloroplast genomes, 285

Chloroplasts, 103, 103, 111–112, 112. See also Mitochondria; Organelles

and endosymbiosis, 171, 171, 527–528, 557–559, 559

inheritance of, 359–360

and metabolism, 554, 555

starch storage in, 158, 160, 160

structure of, 156–157, 157

Choanocytes, 949–950, 950

Choanoflagellates, 563–564, 564, 950

and cell adhesion, 583–584, 584

Cholecystokinin (CCK), 867, 868

Cholesterol, 92

and cell membranes, 92–93, 93

genes affecting, 374, 374

structure of, 45

Chomsky, Noam, 503

Chondrichthyes, 968, 968

Chordata, 964–966

Chorion, 905, 905

Chromatids

non-sister, 227, 227

sister, 223, 223

Chromatin, 58, 222, 282, 283, 378, 379

Chromatin remodeling, 378

and development, 408

and vernalization, 664

Chromosome condensation, 282, 283, 284

Chromosomes, 58, 222–223, 223. See also Sex chromosomes

and gene regulation, 380–382, 381

and genes, 350–351, 351

genetic variation in, 318–323

homologous, 222–223, 223, 282

of human genome, 282, 284, 284–285

and independent assortment, 337–338, 338

and meiosis, 226–228, 229, 231–233, 232

and mitosis, 223–223, 224

mutations in, 301, 301–303, 302, 303

and nondisjunction, 350–351, 351

replication of, 254–256, 255, 256, 257

and segregation of alleles, 332, 333

Chytrids, 727, 727

Circadian clocks, 663–664, 993–994

and endocrine system, 821

Circular muscles, 870, 870

Circulation, 829

Circulatory systems, 840–844, 841, 842, 844, 845, 846. See also Respiratory systems

and bulk flow, 582, 583

and cell signaling, 182

Cis-regulatory elements, 412

Cisternae, 106, 107

Citric acid cycle, 134, 135, 138–140, 139, 140

and first cells, 139–140

visual synthesis of, 173

Cladistics, 469. See also Statistics

Clams, 957–958, 959

Class I, II, and III genes, 935

Classes, 467, 467

Classical conditioning, 990

Classification. See Phylogenetic trees; Taxonomy

Claudins, 208, 210t

Cleavage, 913–914, 914, 915

Clements, Frederic, 1031, 1035

Climate change. See also Global warming

and conservation biology, 1092–1093

and reefs, 975

and ruminants, 871

Climate models, 1075, 1075–1076, 1076

Climax communities, 1035, 1036

Clitoris, 908, 908, 909

Clocks

annual, 993

circadian, 663–664, 821, 993–994

lunar, 993

Clockshifting, 994, 994

Clonal selection, 930, 930–931

Clones, 401–403, 403, 898

Closed circulatory systems, 840–841, 841

Clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPR), 267, 267–268, 922

Cnidaria, 948, 950–952, 951

and reefs, 974

CNV. See Copy-number variation (CNV)

CO. See Cardiac output (CO)

Co-speciation, 455, 456

Coal. See also Fossil fuels

and fungal inhibition, 718

and lycophytes, 695, 697

Coccolithophorids, 574, 574

Cochlea, 768, 769, 770

Cochlear ducts, 769, 770

Codons, 78, 78

anti-, 78, 78

initiation, 79

stop, 80

Coelacanth, 969, 969

Coelom, 947–948, 948

Coelomates, 947–948, 948

Coenocytic cells, 565

and multicellularity, 579

Coevolution, 549

and angiosperms, 704, 975

and aphids, 1028–1030, 1029

and malaria, 434–435, 455–456, 938

of plants and ants, 678

and predator–prey dynamics, 736–737

Coenzyme Q (CoQ), 141, 142

Cofactors, 128–129

Cognition, 780, 780–782, 781

Cohesion, 36–37

Cohorts, 1013

Collagen, 212, 212, 800, 843

and phylogeny, 946

Collecting ducts, 885, 885–886

Colon, 869

Color blindness, 351–352, 352

Comb-jellies, 952, 953

Combinatorial control, 382, 382, 412–415, 413, 414

Commensalisms, 1030–1031, 1031, 1031t

Common ancestors, 465–466, 466, 467

of humans, 486–488, 491–495

Communication [animal], 995, 995–997

Communication [cell], 180–182

and complex multicellularity, 584–585, 585, 586

and endocrine systems, 822, 822–824

Communities, 521, 1031–1036

and climate change, 1076–1080

climax, 1035, 1036

and disturbances, 1034, 1034–1035

and keystone species, 1033–1034, 1034

and predation, 1032–1033, 1033

and succession, 1035, 1035–1036

Compact bone, 801, 801

Companion cells, 611, 611

Comparative genomics, 277

Competition, 1023–1024, 1031t

and fitness, 433

intraspecific vs. interspecific, 1008, 1024

and sexual selection, 437–438

visual synthesis of, 1041

Competitive exclusion, 1024, 1024–1025

and communities, 1032

Complement system, 927–928, 928

Complementary bases, 56, 56

Page I-6

Complex carbohydrates, 42

Complex traits, 364, 364

concordance of, 371–373, 373t

and diseases and disorders, 364–365, 365, 373–375, 374, 375

and the environment, 365, 365–366

and multiple genes, 366, 366–367

and Punnett squares, 366, 366–367

and regression toward the mean, 369, 369

Compound eyes, 771, 772

Concentration gradients, 96, 98

and crosscurrent multipliers, 888–890, 889

Concordance, 371–373, 373t

Concurrent flow, 831, 832

Conditioning, 990

Cone cells, 774, 774–775, 775

Cones, 625, 626

Conformational changes

and ATP synthesis, 143

and cross-bridge cycles, 789–790, 790

and membrane proteins, 97

and receptors, 185–186

Conifers, 700–702, 701

Conjugation, 533, 533

and the biological species concept, 447, 449

Connective tissue, 212

Connell, Joseph, 683, 1034

Connexins, 210, 210t

Consciousness, 503–504, 781–782

Conservation, evolutionary

of developmental transcription factors, 410–412, 498, 498

of hormones, 818

of proteins, 58

Conservation biology, 1016, 1091–1094, 1092, 1093

Conserved sequences, 277

Constant (C) regions, 929, 929, 932

Constitutive phenotypes, 390, 391

Consumers, 521, 521, 1037, 1037. See also Heterotrophs

in aquatic biomes, 1052, 1058

in terrestrial biomes, 1051–1052

visual synthesis of, 1086

Contact-dependent signaling, 182, 184–185

Contraception

female, 911

male, 906

Contractile rings, 225, 225

Contractile vacuoles, 100, 883, 883

Convergent evolution, 468

and desert plants, 1051, 1051

and mosses, 692, 692

of single-lens eyes, 772, 772

of vascular cambium, 696, 696

Convoluted tubules, 888, 888

Cooperative binding, 838

Copy-number variation (CNV), 318, 318

Coral reef biomes, 1059

Coral reefs

as biodiversity hotspots, 942, 942

and climate change, 1077–1080, 1079, 1080

and conservation biology, 1091

history of, 974–975

Corals, 950–952, 953

bleaching of, 1078–1079, 1079

history of, 974–975

Corey, Robert, 74

Coriolis effect, 1048, 1048

Cork cambia, 651, 651, 652, 652, 653

Corn. See Zea mays [corn]

Cornea, 773, 773

Corpus luteum, 909–911, 910

Correlations, 513

and causation, 513

Corridors, 1092–1093, 1093

Cortex [brain]

auditory, 770

cerebral, 777–780, 778, 779

primary motor, 779, 779–780

primary somatosensory, 779, 779–780

visual, 777

Cortex [kidney], 886–887, 887

Cortex [plant], 614, 614, 646, 647, 651

Cortisol, 814, 817t, 818

Countercurrent exchange, 831, 832

Countercurrent flow, 831, 831, 832

Countercurrent multipliers, 888–890, 889

Covalent bonds, 33, 33

CpG islands, 379, 380

Crabs, 962

Cranial nerves, 754, 755

Craniates, 964. See also Vertebrates

Cranium, 966, 967

Crassulacean acid metabolism (CAM), 603–604, 604

Creationists, 426, 432

Crenarchaeota, 545

Crick, Francis H. C., 53, 55, 57, 248–249, 257, 837

CRISPR. See Clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPR)

Crisscross inheritance, 348, 348–350, 349

Cro-Magnons, 494, 494–495

Crocodiles, 970

Crops. See Agriculture

Cross-bridge cycles, 789–790, 790

Cross-bridges, 789

Crosscurrent flow, 834, 835

Crosses. See also Artificial selection

and crisscross inheritance, 348, 348–350, 349

and flowers, 632–634

of plants, 328, 329

reciprocal, 329

test, 332, 332, 333t

Crossing over, 227, 227, 354

and linked genes, 354, 354–355

Crown gall disease, 673–674, 674

CRP–cAMP complex, 389, 390–391, 392

Crustaceans, 962

Cryptic species, 447, 448

Ctenophores, 952, 953

phylogenetic tree for, 953–954, 954

Cultural transmission, 370

Culture, 502, 502–503

Cuticle [animal], 799, 799

in ecdysozoans, 959–960

Cuticle [plant], 602, 602–603

and innate immunity, 924, 924

Cyanobacteria, 544, 544. See also Bacteria

evolution of, 146

and evolution of photosynthesis, 170–171, 171, 557

Cycads, 699–700, 700

Cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP), 188, 188

Cyclic electron transport, 166, 166

Cyclin-dependent kinases (CDK), 233, 233–235, 235

Cyclins, 233, 233–235, 235

Cysteine, 71, 72

Cystic fibrosis

and genetic mapping, 357

and mutations, 298–299, 299

Cytochrome c, 141, 142

Cytokines, 926–927

Cytokinesis, 220, 225, 225–226

Cytokinins, 647, 648t, 650

Cytoplasm, 14, 103

Cytosine (C), 41, 41, 54, 54

Cytoskeletons, 102, 103, 103, 199, 200–206, 554, 554–555

Cytosol, 103

and signal amplification, 188, 188, 189

Cytotoxic T cells, 924, 934–935, 935, 935t

D

Daeschler, Edward, 481

Darwin, Charles, 432

and the appendix, 872

and artificial selection, 15, 370, 1084

and blending inheritance, 326–327, 334–335

and competition, 1024

and evolution, 17, 47, 326

and Galápagos finches, 435

and homology, 969

and human evolution, 486, 488, 504

and natural selection, 432–436, 459, 1008

and phototropism, 657

and the scientific method, 4

and sexual selection, 437–438, 500

and speciation, 459

and species, 446

and taxonomy, 464

and variation, 426, 1084

Darwin, Francis, 657

Darwin’s finches. See Galápagos finches

Dating, radiometric, 477–478, 478

Daughter strands, 248, 248

Dawkins, Marion, 782

Day-neutral plants, 662, 662, 663

Dead zones, 1082, 1083

Deciduous forest biomes, 1050, 1054

Decomposers, 521, 522, 1037, 1037

in aquatic biomes, 1052

fungi as, 718, 718

in terrestrial biomes, 1051

Deep-sea biomes, 1060

Deforestation, 1084, 1085

Delayed hypersensitivity reactions, 935

Deleterious mutations, 311–312, 312, 427, 460–461

Deletions, 301, 301–302

Demography, 1011–1013

Denaturation, 76, 258, 259

Dendrites, 743, 743, 744

Dendritic cells, 924, 925, 926

Dendrogramma enigmatica [animal], 954, 956, 973

Denisovans, 494–495

Denitrification, 540

Density, population, 1005, 1005

Density-dependent factors, 1009

Density-dependent mortality, 683, 683, 704

Density-independent factors, 1009–1010, 1010

Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), 13, 13, 40–42, 42, 50. See also Ribonucleic acid (RNA)

composition of, 54, 54–55

damage to, 303–304, 304

function of, 50–53, 56–57

Page I-7

isolation and sequencing of, 257–264

packaging of, 58, 58

repair of, 304–306, 305, 306

and replication, 248, 248–254

structure of, 55, 55–56

and transcription, 60, 60

Deoxyribose, 53, 53

Depolarization, 746

and sensory transduction, 763

Dermis, 199, 199–200

Descent of Man, The [Darwin], 437, 486

Desert biomes, 1050, 1055

Desiccation, 600

Desiccation tolerance, 600–601, 601

and leaves, 602–604, 603

Desmosomes, 208, 209, 210t

Deuterostomes, 948, 949, 956, 963–964

fossils of, 973

phylogenetic tree for, 963

Development, embryonic, 400–403

combinatorial control in, 412–415, 413, 414

and complex multicellularity, 585–587

and contact-dependent signaling, 184–185, 191

and endocrine systems, 808, 809, 809–811

and gene dosage, 302

hierarchical control of, 404–410

and neoteny, 496

and phylogeny, 948, 949

and pregnancy, 914–918

visual synthesis of, 419, 916–917

Diabetes mellitus, 813

Diaphragm, 832–833, 833, 834

Diaphysis, 801, 802

Diastole, 847, 847

Diatoms, 569, 569

Dideoxynucleotides, 262, 263

Diet, 857, 860, 860–861, 860t, 861t

Dietary minerals, 860, 860

Differentiation, 400

and complex multicellularity, 585–587

Diffusion, 96, 96, 97, 828

facilitated, 96, 97

and gas exchange, 828, 828–830, 829

and multicellularity, 580–581

and prokaryotic cell size, 530–531, 531

intracellular vs. extracellular, 864

sites of, 865t

Digestive tracts, 864, 864, 869–870, 870

Dikarya, 728–729, 729

Dikaryotic (n + n) cells, 724, 725

Dilger, William, 986

Dinoflagellates, 570, 570

Dinosaurs

and birds, 479, 480

extinction of, 6, 474, 481, 975

and the fossil record, 474, 474

Diploblastic animals, 948, 949

Diploid cells, 223, 556, 557

Directional selection, 435, 435–436

Disaccharides. See Polysaccharides

Diseases and disorders. See also Cancer; Drugs; Malaria; Medicine; Pathogens; Sickle-cell anemia

AIDS, 473

and allele frequency, 434

and amoebas, 565

aneurysms, 843

autoimmune, 922–923, 936

and complex traits, 364–365, 365, 373–375, 374, 375

cystic fibrosis, 298–299, 299, 357

diabetes, 813

Down syndrome, 320–321

and epidemics, 21, 1088–1090, 1090

epidermolysis bullosa, 205, 205

and genetic engineering, 268

and genetic information, 52

and genetic risk factors, 295, 311–312, 312

hemophilia, 352, 353

human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), 277, 277–278, 278, 313, 313

and human microbiome, 525–528, 550–551

human papillomavirus (HPV), 176–178, 177

immunological, 927

influenza, 937, 937

Klinefelter syndrome, 322, 322

lactose intolerance, 867

and mitochondrial inheritance, 360, 360

and nondisjunction, 319–322, 320

osteoporosis, 802

phenylketonuria (PKU), 341

tobacco mosaic virus, 287, 287–288, 288, 671, 671–673, 682

tuberculosis, 937–938, 938, 1090

Turner syndrome, 322, 322

and viruses, 287

Dispersal [life cycle]

of seeds, 636, 636, 637

of spores, 623–626, 626

visual synthesis of, 710

Dispersal [speciation], 451–455, 453, 454, 457

human influences on, 1088–1089, 1089

Displays, 983, 983

advertisement, 996, 996

Disruptive selection, 436, 437

and sympatric speciation, 456, 457, 457

Distal convoluted tubules, 888, 888, 891

Disturbances, 1034, 1034–1035

Divergence, 302

and speciation, 451

Diversity. See Biodiversity; Genetic diversity

Dizygotic (fraternal) twins, 371, 371

DNA. See Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)

DNA editing, 267, 267–268

DNA fingerprinting, 314–316

DNA ligase, 252, 252, 304–305

DNA polymerase, 251

DNA sequencing, 263, 263–264

and behavior, 987–989, 989

of genomes, 272–274, 274

and human evolution, 487–488, 488

and phylogeny, 948

and population genetics, 428–430

and species, 447

DNA transposons, 280, 281

DNA typing, 314–316

and multiple alleles, 341

Dobzhansky, Theodosius, 17, 504

Dogs

and learning, 990

and pheromones, 823, 823

Domains, 17, 17, 467, 467

Dominant traits, 328, 329

incomplete, 332–333, 333

in pedigrees, 339, 340

Dormancy, 628

and phototropism, 664

and phytochrome, 660

Dorsal nerve cords, 964, 967

Dosage compensation, 380

Dosage [gene], 302

Double bonds, 33

Double fertilization, 635, 635

visual synthesis of, 710

Double helices, 41–42, 42, 50, 55, 55

Down syndrome, 319–321, 320

Downstream genes, 412, 415

Dragonflies, 962

history of, 974–975

Dreyer, William, 931–932

Drosophila melanogaster [fruit fly]

behavior of, 987, 987–989, 988

biological clocks in, 993

development of, 404–410, 405, 407, 408, 409

dosage compensation in, 380

genetic variation in, 429–431

genetically engineered, 411, 411–412

genome of, 272–273, 278, 278t

innate immune system of, 926

life cycle of, 404, 404–405

linked genes in, 353, 353–357

X-linked genes in, 348, 348–351, 349, 350, 351

Drugs. See also Diseases and disorders; Medicine; Vaccination

antibiotics, 551

and genomes, 278

penicillin, 922

and personalized medicine, 375

from plants, 676, 677t

resistance to, 19, 87, 1089–1091

Dulbecco, Renato, 286

Duodenum, 866, 867

Duplication and divergence, 302–303

Duplications, 301, 301–302

Dynamic instability, 202, 202

Dynein, 202, 203

E

E (exit) sites, 78, 78

Eardrums, 769, 769

Ears, 768–771, 769

Earth. See also Climate change; Global warming

composition of, 9, 9

and geological processes, 433, 1063

and glaciations, 518–520, 519, 977

history of, 478–479, 479

history of atmospheric carbon dioxide, 512, 512, 514, 514, 517–520, 519, 520, 1074–1076

history of atmospheric oxygen, 146, 171, 478, 523, 523, 549, 591

history of temperature, 518–519, 519

and plate tectonics, 517, 520, 520

temperature of, and water, 37

Earthworms, 957, 957

Eccles, John, 749

Ecdysone, 809t, 810–811, 811, 817

Ecdysozoans, 959–963

phylogenetic tree for, 960

Echidnas, 971

Echinodermata, 964, 965

Echolocation, 771, 771

Ecological footprint, 1072–1073, 1073

Ecological isolation, 450, 450

Ecological niches, 448

Page I-8

Ecological species concept (ESC), 448

Ecological systems, 19–20, 20

and evolution, 20

Ecological Theater and the Evolutionary Play, The [Hutchinson], 20

Ecology, 1004. See also Populations

visual synthesis of, 1040–1041

Ecosystem services, 1091

Ecosystems, 1036–1039

visual synthesis of, 1086–1087

Ectoderm, 400, 401, 914, 915

Ectomycorrhizae, 615, 615, 720

Ectotherms

visual synthesis of, 859

Ediacaran fossils, 972–973, 973

Eggs, 231, 232, 899

development of, 911, 912

as totipotent cells, 400, 400–401

Ehrlich, Paul, 682, 925, 927, 930, 1085

Ejaculatory duct, 906, 906

EKG. See Electrocardiograms (EKG)

Elastin, 843

Electrocardiograms (EKG), 848, 848

Electrochemical gradients, 98–99, 99

Electrolytes

balance of, 876–881, 877, 879

and crosscurrent multipliers, 889

Electromagnetic receptors, 764

Electromagnetic spectrum, 160, 160

Electron carriers, 133

Electron donors, 155

Electron transport chain, 133, 134, 140–142, 141

cyclic, 166, 166

photosynthetic, 155, 155–157

visual synthesis of, 173

Electronegativity, 34

Electrons, 30, 30

and orbitals, 30–31, 31

valence, 33

Electrophoresis, gel, 259–260, 260

Electroreceptors, 764

Elements, 30

periodic table of, 31–32, 32

Elena, Santiago, 18

Elongation, 62, 62, 81–83, 82, 83

Elongation factors, 82, 82

Elton, Charles, 1022

Embryos, 900, 914, 915. See also Development, embryonic

visual synthesis of, 916

Emerson, Robert, 162, 163

Emigration, and population size, 1007, 1007

Endangered species, 22, 22, 1091, 1092, 1092

Endemic species, 1019, 1067

and biodiversity hotspots, 1091

Endergonic reactions, 121, 121

Endocrine signaling, 182, 183

Endocrine systems, 808–813

of animals, 818, 818–822, 819

Endocytosis, 104, 105, 554, 554

Endoderm, 400, 401, 914, 915

Endodermis, 614, 614, 951, 951

Endomembrane system, 104, 104–111, 554, 554

Endomycorrhizae, 615, 615, 720

visual synthesis of, 711

Endophytes, 720

Endoplasmic reticulum (ER), 102, 102, 103, 105, 106, 554, 554

rough vs. smooth, 105, 106

Endoskeletons, 797, 799–800, 800

Endosperm, 635, 635

Endosymbiosis, 558–559. See also Symbiosis

and organelles, 171, 171, 206, 527–528

and origin of photosynthesis, 570–572, 572

Endothelial cells, 887, 888

Endotherms, visual synthesis of, 858

Energetic coupling, 123, 123–124

Energy. See also Gibbs free energy (G)

activation (EA), 124–125, 125

and anabolism, 122, 122

and cellular respiration, 144, 144

chemical, 118–119

and ecosystems, 1037–1038, 1038, 1086–1087

from fossil fuels, 154

kinetic, 118, 118

and metabolism, 14–15, 119, 119

nuclear, 1081

and nutrient uptake, 614–615

potential, 118, 118, 142, 142

solar, 169, 1081, 1081

and thermodynamics, 9–10, 119–120

wind, 1081, 1081

Energy balance, 857

Energy intake, 857

Energy levels, 31, 31

Energy use, 857

by humans, 1072–1073, 1073

Enhancers, 61, 61, 382, 382

Enthalpy (H), 121–122

Entropy (S), 9–10, 120, 121–122

Envelopes, 287

Environmental risk factors, 365

and genetic risk factors, 367, 367–368, 368

Environmental variation, 16

Enzymes, 40, 93, 94, 124–129

and activation energy, 124–125, 125

allosteric, 127–128, 128

and chemical reactions, 125, 125–126, 126

influences on, 127, 128

specificity of, 126–127

Eosinophils, 924, 925

Epidemics, 21, 1088–1090, 1090

Epidermis [animal], 199, 199, 951, 951

intermediate filaments in, 205, 205

Epidermis [plant], 601, 602

Epidermolysis bullosa, 205, 205

Epididymis, 906, 906, 907

Epigenetic mechanisms of gene regulation, 379

Epiglottis, 865, 865

Epinephrine. See Adrenaline

Epiphysis, 801, 802

Epiphytes, 604, 691

Epistasis, 338, 338–339, 374

and Punnett squares, 338

Epithelium, 199, 201, 201, 204, 204, 952

and cell junctions, 208–210, 209

EPSP. See Excitatory postsynaptic potentials (EPSP)

Equational division, 228. See also Meiosis II

ER. See Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)

ESC. See Ecological species concept (ESC)

Escherichia coli [bacterium], 531, 532

and cell division, 220

and digestion, 869

and DNA repair, 304–305

and experimental evolution, 18

genome of, 278t, 281–282, 282

and transcription, 59, 60

transcriptional regulation in, 388–389, 389

and translation, 83

and tree of life, 16–17, 17

viral infection of, 392–393, 393

Esophagus, 864, 864, 865

Essay on the Principle of Population, An [Malthus], 433, 1004

Essential amino acids, 857, 860, 860t

Estradiol, 909, 910

Estrogen, 814, 816t, 818, 820, 908, 909, 910

Estrus cycles, 911

Ethanol fermentation, 145, 145–146

Ethics. See also Public policy

and genetic engineering, 264, 267, 403

and genetic testing, 342

and personal genomes, 274

and regenerative medicine, 403

visual synthesis of, 418

Ethnicity

and genetic variation, 500

and haplotype, 358–359, 359

Ethylene, 647, 648t, 661

Eudicots, 707–708, 708

phylogenetic tree for, 708

Eukarya, 14, 562

phylogenetic tree for, 17, 534

vs. Bacteria and Archaea, 534t

Eukaryotes, 14, 101, 554–557

biodiversity of, 562–572

cell division in, 221

genomes of, 279–280, 280

internal organization of, 101, 101–104, 102, 103, 554, 554–555

and meiosis, 226–233

and mitosis, 222–226

multicellular, 578, 578–580, 579, 580

origins of, 557–562, 559, 560, 561

phylogenetic tree for, 563, 563

and symbiotic bacteria, 562, 562

visual synthesis of, 976–977

Eumetazoans, 950

Euryarchaeota, 545

halophilic, 546

methanogenic, 546

Eutrophication, 1082

Evapotranspiration, 1050, 1051

Evo-devo, 400, 592

and Hox genes, 410

and master regulatory genes, 412, 592

Evolution, 15–19. See also Biodiversity; Genetic diversity; Mutations; Natural selection

of altruism, 999–1001

of animals, 972–975, 973, 974

and asexual reproduction, 901, 901–903, 902

of the Calvin cycle, 169

and the carbon cycle, 522–523, 523

of cellular respiration, 144–146, 146

of the citric acid cycle, 140

and competition, 1024

of complex multicellularity, 589, 589–592, 590, 591, 592

convergent, 468

and cultural change, 502–503

of the cytoskeleton, 205–206

and ecological systems, 20

and endosymbiosis, 171, 171, 206, 527–528

evidence for, 482–483, 483, 872

experimental, 17–19

of eyes, 771–772, 772

of fungi, 727, 727

Page I-9

and gene families, 302–303

and genetic variation, 426, 426–430, 427, 428

of glycolysis, 137, 146

and Hardy–Weinberg equilibrium, 430–432, 431

of hearts, 844, 844–847, 845, 846

of leaves, 645, 645

of lungs, 968–969

and the Modern Synthesis, 434

molecular, 440, 440–441

of multicellularity, 578–580

and mutations, 14, 306

of nervous systems, 741–743, 742

of photosynthesis, 170–171, 171

and phylogenetic trees, 464–465, 465

of plant life cycles, 626–627, 627

of plants, 279–280

of populations, 430

of predation, 573

of prokaryotes, 548, 548–551, 549

of proteins, 86–87

of reproduction, 898–903

of resistance, 939, 1089–1091

and the scientific method, 4

and sexual reproduction, 232

and transcriptional regulation, 393

and vestigial structures, 871–872

Evolutionarily conserved proteins, 58

Evolutionarily stable strategies, 998

Excitation–contraction coupling, 791, 791–792

Excitatory postsynaptic potentials (EPSP), 752–753, 753

Excretion, 881–886

and kidneys, 884–886, 885

mechanism of, 882–883, 883

organs of, 883–884, 884

Excretory tubules, 883, 883

Exercise, 150

Exergonic reactions, 121, 121

Exhalation, 832–833, 833

Exocytosis, 104, 104, 554, 554

and synapses, 751

Exons, 65, 65, 383, 383

and structure of genes, 276–277, 277

Exoskeletons, 797–799, 799

and innate immunity, 924, 924

Experimentation, 4. See also How Do We Know?; Scientific method

controlled, 5–6

and DNA sequencing, 263–264, 264

and ecology, 1015–1016, 1016

and evolution, 17–19

fluorescent dyes, 284, 284

fluorescent recovery after photobleaching (FRAP), 94, 95

and gel electrophoresis, 259–260, 260, 428–429

and isotopes, 156, 159, 249

and origin of organic molecules, 46

and polymerase chain reactions (PCR), 257–259, 258, 314–315, 315

replica plating, 295–296

and structure of DNA, 55

and X-ray crystallography, 74, 74

Exponential growth, 1008, 1008

Expression, 378

Extension, 258, 259, 794, 794–795

External fertilization, 903, 903

Extinctions. See also Mass extinctions

and the biological species concept, 448–449

and evolutionary history, 972–975, 974

and the fossil record, 474, 476

human influences on, 22, 22, 1084–1085

and island biogeography, 1017, 1017

mass, 474, 481–482, 482

Extracellular digestion, 864

Extracellular matrix, 199, 210–215, 800

in animals, 212, 212–214

in plants, 211, 211

Extraembryonic membranes, 905, 905

Extravasation, 927, 927

Extremophiles, 26–27

Eyecups, 771, 772

compound, 771, 772

development of, 410–412, 411

evolution of, 771–772, 772

F

F1 generation, 329, 329

F2 generation, 330, 330, 331t

Facilitated diffusion, 96, 97

Facilitation, 1027–1028

Facultative mutualisms, 1030

FAD or FADH2. See Flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD, FADH2)

Fallopian tubes, 907, 908

Families, 467, 467

Fast-twitch muscles, 796, 796

Fatty acids, 39

dietary, 148–149

saturated vs. unsaturated, 43–44, 92

Feature detectors, 984–985, 985

Feedback

negative, 128, 386, 388, 757, 757, 812, 812–813, 909

positive, 746, 813, 813, 909

Feeding

and jaws and teeth, 862, 862–864, 863

suction, 862, 862

suspension filter, 861, 861

Fenestrae, 887, 888

Fermentation, 145, 145–146, 536

in bacteria, 536, 536–537

in ruminants, 870–871, 871

Ferns, 600

biodiversity of, 697, 697–699, 698

phylogenetic tree for, 697

Fertilization, 231–232, 899–900, 900

double, 635, 635

external vs. internal, 903, 903–904

and flowers, 635–636

human, 912–913, 913

visual synthesis of, 916

in vitro (IVF), 913

Fertilizers

and the Green Revolution, 637, 1083

and the nitrogen cycle, 1082

and nitrogen fixation, 616–617

and the phosphorus cycle, 1082–1084, 1083

Fetuses, 914

visual synthesis of, 917

Fibers [muscle], 786, 787

Fibers [wood], 653, 653

Fibroblasts, 212, 214

Fight-or-flight responses, 180

and endocrine system, 814

and Starling’s Law, 848–849

and sympathetic nervous system, 756

Filaments. See Intermediate filaments; Microfilaments; Thick filaments; Thin filaments

Filial imprinting, 992, 992

Filtration, 882–883, 883

Finches. See Galápagos finches

Firing rates, 765, 765

First-division nondisjunction, 319, 319

First law of thermodynamics, 9, 9, 119, 119

Fish, 967–969

bony, 968–969, 969

cartilaginous, 968, 968

hearts of, 844, 845

jawless, 967, 967–968

life cycle of, 880, 880

lobe-finned, 969, 969

and pheromones, 824, 824

respiratory systems of, 830, 830–831, 831, 832

Fisher, Ronald, 434

Fisheries, 1085, 1088, 1088

and sustainable development, 1093–1094

Fitness, 433

and inbreeding, 440

and spore dispersal, 623

Fitzwater, Steve, 1065

59 caps, 64, 64

59 ends, 55, 55–56

and replication, 250, 250–251

and transcription, 62, 62

Fixed action patterns, 983–984, 984

Fixed populations, 427

visual synthesis of, 460–461

Flagella, 204, 204, 906

in opisthokonts, 563, 563

in sperm, 231, 906, 907

Flatworms

excretory organs of, 883–884, 884

eyecups in, 771, 772

gas exchange in, 828, 828

Flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD, FADH2), 133

and cellular respiration, 148, 148

and the citric acid cycle, 138–140, 139

and the electron transport chain, 140–142, 141

Fleas, 962

Fleming, Alexander, 922

Flexion, 794, 794–795

Flies. See also Drosophila melanogaster [fruit fly]

house, 410, 410

Flow

concurrent, 831, 832

countercurrent, 831, 831, 832

crosscurrent, 834, 835

Flowers, 628–638. See also Angiosperms

development of, 646–647, 647

diversity of, 414, 414–415, 629, 631, 633

organization of, 629, 629–630

and pollination, 631, 631–632, 632

visual synthesis of, 710

Fluid mosaic model, 94

Fluids, 92

Fluorescent recovery after photobleaching (FRAP), 94, 95

Folding domains, 86, 86

Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), 816t, 818, 908–909, 909, 910

Follicles, 909, 910

Follicular phase, 909, 910

Food chains, 1037

Page I-10

Food webs, 521, 522, 1036–1037, 1037

visual synthesis of, 1086–1087

Foraminifera, 573, 574

Forces, 786

and joint motion, 802–804, 803

Forebrain, 777, 778

Foreguts, 864, 864

Forensics, 257, 259

Fossil fuels

and carbon cycle, 513–515, 514

and carbon dioxide emissions, 1080–1082

origin of, 154

Fossil record, 474–482

and animals, 972–975, 973, 974

and climate changes, 1077

and complex cellularity, 589–590, 590

of dinosaurs, 474, 474, 479, 480

and evolutionary history, 1068, 1068

and fossilization, 474–476, 476

and human evolution, 488–491, 489, 490, 491

and microfossils, 573, 573

and molecular clocks, 440

and molecular fossils, 475–476

and phylogeny, 482–483, 483

and protists, 572–574, 573, 574

in Rhynie chert, 693–694, 694

and trace fossils, 475, 475

and tree of life, 17

and vascular plants, 654

Fovea, 775

Fox, George, 534

Fracking, 1081

Fragmentation, 898, 899

Frameshift mutations, 298–299, 299

Franklin, Rosalind, 55

FRAP. See Fluorescent recovery after photobleaching (FRAP)

Fraternal (dizygotic) twins, 371, 371

Frequency of recombination, 355–357

Freshwater biomes, 1057, 1058

Frisch, Karl von, 982, 997

Frogs. See also Amphibians; Xenopus laevis [toad]

and feature detectors, 984–985, 985

and predation, 1026–1027, 1028

Frontal lobes, 778, 779

Fruit flies. See Drosophila melanogaster [fruit fly]

Fruiting bodies, 723, 723

Fruits, 636, 636, 637

visual synthesis of, 710

FSH. See Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)

Functional groups, 39–40, 40

Fundamental niches, 1023, 1023

Fungi, 580, 716

biodiversity of, 726–734, 729, 732

as decomposers, 718, 718

evolution of, 590–591, 591, 727, 727

growth and nutrition of, 716–721

life cycle of, 723–725, 725

and mycorrhizae, 615, 615–616

as pathogens, 718–720, 719, 730–731, 922, 923

phylogenetic tree for, 727

reproduction of, 722, 722–726, 723, 726

G

G0 phase, 221, 222

G1 phase, 221, 222

G2 phase, 221, 222

G protein-coupled receptors, 186, 186–187

and short-term responses, 187–191, 188, 189, 190

G proteins, 186, 186

Gage, Phineas, 777, 777

Gain-of-function mutations, 411, 411

Galápagos finches, 435, 435

adaptive radiation of, 454, 455

Gallbladder, 867, 868

Galton, Francis, 364, 368–372

Gametes, 220, 231, 330, 899, 900

Gametic isolation, 450

Gametogenesis, 911, 912

Gametophytes, 622, 622

evolution of, 691, 691–692

Ganglia, 741, 742, 777

and vision, 777

Gap genes, 407, 407

Gap junctions, 209, 210, 210t, 585, 585

Garner, Wightman, 662

Gas exchange, 828–830, 829

respiratory, 830, 830–835, 831, 832, 834, 835

Gastric cavities, 951, 951

Gastrin, 814, 817t, 866

Gastropods, 958, 958

history of, 974

Gastrulas, 400, 401, 588, 588–589

Gastrulation, 404, 404, 914, 915

and phylogeny, 946, 949

visual synthesis of, 916

Gause, Georgii, 1025

Gautier, Marthe, 320

Gehring, Walter, 411–412

Gel electrophoresis, 259–260, 260

and population genetics, 428–429

Gene expression, 50, 378

influences on, 378–380, 379, 380

regulation of, 380–382, 381

and transcription, 382, 382

visual synthesis of, 84–85

Gene families, 302–303

Gene flow, 438

Gene pools, 426

Gene regulation, 50, 378. See also Transcriptional regulation

Genera, 467, 467

General transcription factors, 61, 382, 382

Genes, 13, 50

and chromosomes, 350–351, 351

class I, II, and III, 935

dosage of, 302

downstream, 412, 415

gap, 407, 407

homeotic (Hox), 408, 408–410, 409

housekeeping, 60–61

linked, 353–357

maternal-effect, 405

number of, 278–279, 278t

onco-, 236, 238

pair-rule, 407, 407

proto-onco-, 238

pseudo-, 441

structural, 389

structure of, 276–277, 277

X-linked, 348–353, 349, 352

Genetic code, 79–81, 81

Genetic diversity. See also Biodiversity; Evolution; Genetic variation; Mutations; Natural selection

in bacteria, 532–533, 533

and crossing over, 227

in eukaryotes, 555–556

and first cells, 83

and mass extinctions, 481–482, 482

and recombinants, 355

and sexual reproduction, 232, 556–557, 557

Genetic drift, 430, 438–439, 439

and Hardy–Weinberg equilibrium, 430

visual synthesis of, 460

Genetic engineering, 264–268

and agriculture, 266, 266–267, 596–597, 617, 674, 683–684

and climate change, 1084

and DNA editing, 267, 267–268

and ethics, 264, 267, 403

of fruit flies, 411, 411–412

and genetically modified organisms, 266, 266–267

of mosquitoes, 422–424

and recombinant DNA, 264–265, 265

and regenerative medicine, 403

Genetic incompatibility, 450

Genetic information, 50. See also Transmission genetics

flow of, 51–53

and nucleic acids, 40–42

Genetic maps, 355–356, 357

Genetic risk factors, 244–246, 257, 294–295

and environmental risk factors, 367, 367–368, 368

and genetic mapping, 356–357, 357

Genetic testing, 342

visual synthesis of, 418

Genetic variation, 16, 310. See also Genetic diversity

in chromosomes, 318–323

in genomes, 316–318

and genotype, 310–314

human, 498–502, 501

individual uniqueness, 314–316

measuring, 427–430, 429

and mutations, 306

and phenotype, 310–314

and population genetics, 426, 426–427, 427

and segregation, 334–335

visual synthesis of, 418

Genetically modified organisms (GMO), 266, 266–267. See also Genetic engineering

Genome annotation, 275, 275–278

Genomes, 272. See also Case 3: Personal genome

annotation of, 275, 275–278

genetic variation in, 316–318

mutation rates in, 293, 293

nuclear, 285

organization of, 281–285, 555–556

sequencing of, 272–274, 488

Genomic rearrangement, 931–934, 932, 933, 933

Genomics, comparative, 277

Genotype-by-environment interactions, 312, 367–368, 368

visual synthesis of, 419

Genotypes, 310–314, 330

and Punnett squares, 331, 331

Genus, 467, 467

Geographic isolation, 450, 450

Geologic processes. See also Earth

and the carbon cycle, 516–517, 518

and chemical weathering, 1063

and Earth, 433

Geologic timescale, 476–479, 477, 477

and biodiversity, 573–574

calibration of, 478

Germ cells, 256, 293

mutations in, 293–294

Page I-11

Germ layers, 400, 401, 914, 915

visual synthesis of, 916

Germ-line mutations, 293–294, 427

Germination, 632

GH. See Growth hormone (GH)

Gibberellic acid, 647, 648t, 650

Gibbs free energy (G), 121, 121–122. See also Energy

and cellular respiration, 132, 135, 135

Giemsa stains, 284, 285

Gills, 830, 830–831, 831, 832

Gilmore, Claudia, 244, 244–246, 274, 295, 317, 358

Ginkgos, 699–700, 701

Gizzards, 865

Glaciations, 518–520, 519

visual synthesis of, 977

Glaciers, 512, 512

Glans penis, 907

Glaucocystophytes, 566, 567

Gleason, Henry, 1032, 1035

Glial cells, 744–745, 749

Global warming, 1074, 1074–1076, 1075, 1076. See also Climate change

Glomeromycetes, 728

Glomerulus, 885, 885–886

mammalian, 886–888, 887

Glucagon, 814, 817t

Glucose

absorption of, 868, 869

and cellular respiration, 135, 135

and negative feedback, 812, 812–813

and transcriptional regulation, 388–391, 389, 390, 391

Glycerol, 43, 44

Glycine, 71, 72

Glycogen, 147, 147

and exercise, 150

Glycolysis, 135, 135–137, 136

and carbohydrates, 147

evolution of, 137, 146

and skeletal muscles, 796–797

visual synthesis of, 173

Glycosidic bonds, 43, 43

GMO. See Genetically modified organisms (GMO)

Gnetophytes, 702, 702

GnRH. See Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH)

Golgi, Camillo, 744

Golgi apparatus, 102, 102, 103, 105–107, 107, 554, 554

Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH), 908, 909, 910

Gonads, 820, 905, 906, 907, 908

Goodall, Jane, 16

Gordon, Albert, 793

Gottschalk, Carl W., 890

Gradients, concentration, and diffusion, 96, 98

Gradients, electrochemical

and active transport, 98–99, 99

and ATP synthesis, 142, 142

Gram, Hans Christian, 543

Gram-positive bacteria, 543–544

Grana, 156, 157

Granulocytes, 924, 925

Granulomas, 938, 938

Grasses, 705–707, 706, 707

and succession, 1035, 1035

Grasshoppers, 962

Gravitropism, 656–659, 658

Gray matter, 778, 779

Green algae, 566–568, 568. See also Plants

and evolution of plants, 620, 620–621, 621, 650

Green Revolution, 637–638. See also Agriculture

and fertilizers, 617, 1083

and fungi, 734

and pesticides and herbicides, 683–684

Greenhouse effect, 1074, 1074

Greenhouse gases, 519, 1094

and ruminants, 871, 1074

Griffin, Donald, 782

Griffith, Frederick, 50–52

Grinnell, Joseph, 1022

Group selection, 998

Growth

exponential, 1008, 1008

logistic, 1009, 1009

Growth factor, 183–184

Growth hormone (GH), 811, 814, 816t, 818

Growth plates, 801, 802

Growth rings, 652, 652

in mollusks, 799

Guanine (G), 41, 41, 54, 54

Guard cells, 603, 603

Guérin, Camille, 938

Gurdon, John, 401–402

Gustation, 766, 767

Guts, 864, 864

Gymnosperms, 600

biodiversity of, 699–702, 700, 701, 702

evolution of, 689

life cycle of, 625–627, 626

phylogenetic tree for, 699

H

Haber, Fritz, 617

Haber–Bosch process, 617

Habitats

human influences on, 1016, 1016, 1084–1085, 1085

Habituation, 990

Hagfish, 967, 967–968

Hair cells, 767–771, 769, 770

and hearing, 770, 770

in mammals, 970–971

Half-life, 478, 478

Hamilton, William, 1000–1001

Hanson, Jean, 789

Haploid cells, 223, 556, 557

Haplotypes, 358, 358–359, 359

Hardy, G. H., 430

Hardy–Weinberg equilibrium, 430–432, 431

and Punnett squares, 431, 431–432

Hatch, Marshall, 159

hCG. See Human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG)

Hearing, 768–771, 769, 770

Heart rate (HR), 848–849

Hearts, 840–841, 841

evolution of, 844, 844–847, 845, 846

Heartwood, 652

Heat

and chemical reactions, 124

and climate, 1047–1049, 1048

and thermodynamics, 120

Heavy (H) chains, 929, 929

Helicase, 252, 253

Helicobacter pylori [bacterium], 526, 550

Helmont, Jan Baptist van, 154

Helper T cells, 924, 934–935, 935, 935t

Hematocrit, 836, 836

Hemichordata, 964, 964

Hemidesmosomes, 208, 209, 210t

Hemoglobin, 836–837, 837

and sickle-cell anemia, 297–298, 310–311, 311, 317, 434–435, 501–502

transport of oxygen by, 837, 837–840, 838, 840

Hemolymph, 829, 837

Hemophilia, 352, 353

Hepatocytes, 198, 198, 215

Herbicides, 683–684

Herbivory, 1027, 1031t

and plant defenses, 674–679, 675, 676, 678, 679–681

Heritability, 370, 370

Hermaphrodites, 415

Hess, Carl von, 982

Heterokaryotic cells, 724, 725

Heterotrophs, 116, 117. See also Consumers

Heterozygosity, 311, 331

Heterozygote advantage, 434

Hill, A. V., 793

Hindbrain, 777, 778

Hindguts, 864, 864

Hinge joints, 802, 802

Hippocampus, 778, 778

Hippocrates, 326

Hippopotamus, 1034

Hispaniola

as biodiversity hotspot, 941–943, 942, 1032

and island biogeography, 1018, 1019

and population dynamics, 1004, 1008

Histamine, 925–927, 926, 928, 930

Histograms, 1010, 1011

Histone code, 378, 379

Histone tails, 378, 379

Histones, 58, 222, 282, 283, 284

and molecular clocks, 441, 441

HIV. See Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)

Hodgkin, Alan, 749–750

Hodgkin, Dorothy Crowfoot, 74

Holley, Robert W., 80

Holtfreter, Johannes, 206

Homeodomain, 408–409

Homeostasis, 96, 740, 811, 876

and autonomic nervous system, 756–757, 757

and circulatory systems, 835, 836, 844

and endocrine systems, 811–813, 812, 813, 819

and energy balance, 857

and negative feedback, 128, 811–813, 812

and renal systems, 876–881, 879, 892–893, 893

visual synthesis of, 858–859

Homeotic (Hox) genes, 408, 408–410, 409, 961, 961

Homing pigeons, 993–994, 994

Hominins, 489, 490

Homo genus, 490, 490–491, 491

Homo sapiens. See Humans

Homologous chromosomes, 222–223, 223, 282

Homology, 468, 468–469

and evolutionary history, 469, 469

swim bladders and lungs, 968–969

Homozygosity, 311

Hooke, Robert, 90, 100

Horizontal cells, 777

Horizontal gene transfer, 532–533, 533

and phylogeny, 542

Page I-12

Hormones, 647, 808, 809t. See also Steroids

and behavior, 985–986, 986

and kidneys, 891–892, 892

in plants, 647–650, 648t

properties of, 813–818, 816t–817t

and the reproductive system, 908–911, 909, 910

as signaling molecules, 180, 183

Hornworts. See also Bryophytes

biodiversity of, 691, 691

Horsetails, 600

biodiversity of, 697, 697–699

phylogenetic tree for, 697

Host cells, 287

Host plants, 670

Hosts. See also Parasites

and co-speciation, 455–456, 456

Hotspots [biodiversity]. See Case 8: Biodiversity hotspots

Hotspots [genome], 293

House flies, eyes in, 410, 410

Housekeeping genes, 60–61

How Do We Know? See also Experimentation; Scientific method

action potentials, 750, 750

antibody diversity, 932, 932

arthropod appendages, 961, 961

artificial selection, 436, 436

asexual reproduction, 902

atmospheric carbon dioxide, 512, 512, 514, 514

ATP synthesis, 143

biodiversity and primary productivity, 1039, 1039

bird navigation, 994, 994

butterfly wings, 593

carbohydrate synthesis, 159

cell-cycle regulation, 234

coevolution, 1029, 1029

complex traits, 372

convergent evolution, 696, 696

DNA replication, 249

Down syndrome, 320–321

enzymes in reactions, 126–127

evolution of AIDS virus, 473

extracellular matrix, 215

fish–tetrapod link, 481, 481

fungal infection of ants, 731, 731

genetic code, 80

genetic influence on behavior, 988, 988

genetic mapping, 356

genetic material, 51–52

genome sequencing, 272–273

grassland expansion, 706, 706

growth and development hormones, 810, 810

growth factors, 183–184

human lineage, 488

human origins, 492–493

inheritance of single-gene traits, 336–337

iron as limiting nutrient, 1064, 1065

learning in insects, 991, 991

leaves pull water from soil, 608

membrane fluidity, 95

mutations, 296

ocean acidification, 1080, 1080

oceanic Archaea, 547

oceanic Bacteria, 541

origin of cell adhesion, 584, 584

origin of chloroplasts, 558, 558

origin of organic molecules, 46

origin of photosynthesis, 571

photorespiration, 606

photosynthetic oxygen, 156

phototropism, 657, 657

plant communication, 680, 680

plant immune systems, 672

pollinator shifts, 633, 633

population sizes, 1006, 1006

predator–prey coexistence, 1026, 1027

protein shapes, 74

seed germination, 659, 659

speciation and vicariance, 452, 452

spontaneous generation, 10–11

stem cells, 402

transcriptional regulation, 388

transposons, 300

viruses and cancer, 237

vision, 776, 776

Hox genes. See Homeotic (Hox) genes

Hozumi, Nobumichi, 932

HPV. See Human papillomavirus (HPV)

HR. See Heart rate (HR)

Hubel, David, 776–777

Huffaker, Carl, 1025–1026

Human activities, 20–22

and the carbon cycle, 513–515, 514, 1073, 1073–1082

and conservation biology, 1092–1093

and coral reefs, 975

and dispersal, 1088–1089, 1089

and extinctions, 22, 22, 1084–1085

and habitats, 1016, 1016, 1084–1085, 1085

and island biogeography, 1084

and the nitrogen cycle, 1082–1084, 1083

and the phosphorus cycle, 1082–1084, 1083

and red tides, 570

and solar energy, 169

visual synthesis of, 1040–1041, 1086–1087

Human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG), 911

Human Development Index, 1072, 1073

Human evolution

African origins of, 491–495, 495

and the fossil record, 488–491, 489, 490, 491

and natural selection, 500–502, 501

phylogenetic tree for, 486, 486–487, 487

and predator–prey dynamics, 737–738

and sexual selection, 500–501

Human genome, 272

chromosomes of, 282, 284, 284–285

repetitive DNA in, 280–281, 281

size of, 278t

Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)

genome of, 277, 277–278, 278

and polymorphisms, 313, 313

Human papillomavirus (HPV), 176–178, 177

Humans

and biological clocks, 993

chemical composition of, 37, 37

and consciousness, 503–504

and culture, 502, 502–503

demography of, 1010, 1011, 1013, 1013

energy use by, 1072–1073, 1073

and ethnic origin, 358–359, 359

eyes in, 410, 410

features of, 495–498, 496

genetic variation in, 498–502, 501

height of, 369, 374–375

and language, 503

population growth of, 1072, 1072

prehistory of, 499, 499–500

reproductive systems of, 905–911, 906, 907, 908, 909, 910

Hunt, Tim, 234

Hutchinson, G. Evelyn, 20, 1022, 1068

Huxley, Andrew, 749–750, 789, 793

Huxley, Hugh, 789

Hybridization, 328, 448

and the biological species concept, 448

and instantaneous speciation, 458, 458

Hydraulic fracturing, 1081

Hydrogen bonds, 35–36, 36

and base pairing, 56, 56

in proteins, 74, 75

Hydrogenosomes, 559, 560, 562

Hydrolysis, of ATP, 122–123, 123

Hydrophilic molecules, 35

amino acids, 70–71, 71

and cell membranes, 90–91, 91

hormones, 813–814

Hydrophobic effect, 35

Hydrophobic molecules, 35

amino acids, 71, 71

and cell membranes, 90–91, 91

hormones, 813–815

Hydrostatic skeletons, 797–798, 798

Hydrothermal vents, 27

and annelid worms, 957, 957

and chemoautotrophs, 537–538, 538

and deep-sea biomes, 1059, 1060

and hyperthermophiles, 545–546

and origin of eukaryotes, 560

and origin of life, 129

Hydroxyapatite, 800

Hymenoptera, 1000, 1001

Hypersensitive responses, 671, 671

delayed, 935

immediate, 930

Hyperthermophiles, 545–546

Hyphae, 716, 716–718, 717

Hypothalamus, 778, 778

and endocrine system, 818, 818–819, 819

and thermoregulation, 757, 757

visual synthesis of, 858–859

Hypotheses, 4–6. See also Scientific method

I

Ice records, 512, 512, 518

Identical (monozygotic) twins, 371, 371

Ileum, 866, 867

Imitation, 990

Immediate hypersensitivity reactions, 930

Immigration, and population size, 1007, 1007

Immune systems, 922–923

and the appendix, 871

of plants, 670, 670–673

Immunity. See Adaptive immunity; Innate immunity

Immunodeficiency, 922, 927

Implantation, visual synthesis of, 916

Imprinting, 379–380

In vitro fertilization (IVF), 913

Inbreeding depression, 440

Page I-13

Incisors, 863, 863

Incomplete dominance, 332–333, 333

and Punnett squares, 333

Incomplete penetrance, 341

Incus, 769, 770

Independent assortment. See Principle of independent assortment

Induced pluripotent stem cells (iPS cells), 403

Inducers, 388

and transcriptional regulation, 389–390, 390

Inflammation, 926, 926–927

Influenza, 937, 937

Inhalation, 832–833, 833

Inheritance. See also Transmission genetics

biparental, 359

blending, 326–327, 327, 334–335

crisscross, 348, 348–350, 349

maternal, 359–360, 360

in mitochondria, 359–360, 360

of organelle DNA, 359–360, 360

paternal, 359

X-linked, 348–353, 349, 352

Y-linked, 357–359, 358, 359

Inhibitors, 127, 128

Inhibitory postsynaptic potentials (IPSP), 752–753, 753

Initiation, 62, 81–83, 82, 83

Initiation codons, 79

Initiation factors, 81, 82

Innate behaviors, 982–983, 983

Innate immunity, 923–928, 923t

and skin, 924, 924

Inner cell masses, 400, 401

Inner ears, 769, 770

Insects, 962–963, 963

compound eyes in, 771–772, 772

excretory organs of, 884, 885

history of, 974–975

and learning, 990–991, 991

respiratory systems of, 830, 833

social, 1000–1001

Insel, Thomas, 989

Instantaneous speciation, 458, 458–459, 459

Insulin, 814, 817t

Integral membrane proteins, 94

Integrated pest management, 684

Integrins 207, 207, 208, 210t

and complex multicellularity, 583

Intercostal muscles, 832–833, 834

Intermediate filaments, 200, 200, 206t

structure of, 204, 204–205, 205

Intermembrane space, 137, 137

Internal fertilization, 904

Interneurons, 740, 744

Internodes, 642, 642

elongation of, 643–644, 644

Interphase, 221, 221–222

Intersexual selection, 438, 996

Interspecific competition, 1008, 1024

Intertidal biomes, 1059

Intervertebral discs, 798, 798

Intracellular digestion, 864

Intrasexual selection, 437, 437–438

Intraspecific competition, 1008, 1024

Intrinsic growth rate (r), 1008, 1008

Introns, 65, 65, 383, 383

and structure of genes, 276–277, 277

Invasive species, 1088–1089, 1089

Inversions, 303, 303

Involuntary nervous system. See Autonomic nervous system

Ion channels, 186, 187

Ionic bonds, 34, 34–35

Ions, 30

iPS cells. See Induced pluripotent stem cells (iPS cells)

IPSP. See Inhibitory postsynaptic potentials (IPSP)

Irises [eye], 773, 773

Iron, 1064, 1065

Island biogeography, 1016–1019, 1017, 1017, 1018

human influences on, 1084

Island populations, 453, 453

Isolation. See Gametic isolation; Geographic isolation; Partial reproductive isolation; Reproductive isolation; Temporal isolation

Isomers, 39

Isotopes, 30

and carbon cycle, 513–514, 517–520

and radiometric dating, 477–478, 478

and temperature history, 518–519, 519

IVF. See In vitro fertilization (IVF)

J

Jacob, François, 59, 90, 92, 388, 390–391

Janzen, Daniel, 683

Jawless fish, 967, 967–968

Jaws, 862–863, 863, 966, 967

Jejunum, 866, 867

Jellyfish, 950–952, 951, 953

and diffusion, 581, 581

eyes in, 410, 410

Jenkins, Farish, 481

Jenner, Edward, 931

Joints, 802, 802

motion of, 802–804, 803

Joyce, Gerald, 8

Julian, Fred, 793

Juvenile hormone, 809t, 811, 811

Juxtaglomerular apparatus, 892, 893

K

K-strategists, 904, 904, 1013, 1014

and succession, 1036

Kacelnik, Alex, 504

Kangaroos, 971

Karlson, Peter, 811

Karyogamy, 724, 725

Karyotypes, 222–223, 223, 284, 319

human, 284, 321

Keeling, Charles David, 510, 513

Keeling curve, 511, 511, 513, 1073

Kelp, 568–569, 569

and keystone species, 1033, 1033

Kendrew, John, 74, 837

Keratinocytes, 199, 199

Key stimuli, 984, 984

Keystone species, 1033–1034, 1034

Khorana, Har Gobind, 80

Kidneys, 884–886, 885

and blood regulation, 892–893, 893

function of, 887, 887–892, 888, 889, 890, 892

structure of, 886–887, 887

Kin selection, 999–1001

Kineses, 993

Kinesin, 202, 203

Kinetic energy, 118, 118

Kinetochores, 224, 225

King, Mary-Claire, 487–488, 496

King, Nicole, 584

Kingdoms, 467, 467

Klinefelter syndrome, 322, 322

Knee-extension reflex, 758, 758

Knowlton, Nancy, 452

Koalas, 971

Kohler, Nancy, 183

Köppen, Wladimir, 1049–1050

Krebs cycle. See Citric acid cycle

Krill, 962, 1004, 1005

Krings, Matthias, 494

Kuffler, Stephen, 776–777

Kuhn, Alfred, 809–810

Kuhn, Werner, 890–891

L

Labia majora, 908, 909

Labia minora, 908, 909

Laboratory techniques. See Experimentation

Lactic acid fermentation, 145, 145–146

and exercise, 150

Lactose intolerance, 867

Lagging strands, 251, 251–252

synthesis of, 252, 252–254

Lake biomes, 1057, 1058

Lamarck, Jean-Baptiste, 326

Lamellae, 831, 831

Laminin, 214, 214, 215

Lampreys, 967, 967–968

Language, 503

Large intestines, 864, 864, 869

Lariats, 65, 65

Larynx, 833, 834

Lateral inhibition, 415, 416, 765–766, 766

Lateral line system, 767, 768

Lateral meristems, 651

Latex, 674–675, 675

Latitudinal diversity gradient, 1066, 1066, 1066–1067, 1067

Leading strands, 251, 251–252

synthesis of, 252, 252–254

Learned behaviors, 982–983

Learning, 989–992, 991, 992

Leaves, 601, 601–606, 602, 603

evolution of, 645, 645

growth of, 644–646, 645, 646

visual synthesis of, 711

Lederberg, Joshua and Esther, 295–296

Leeches, 957, 957

Leeuwenhoek, Anton van, 90

Lejeune, Jérôme, 320

Lemmings, 998, 1032–1033, 1033

Lenses, 773, 773

Lenski, Richard, 18

Lenticels, 652, 653

Lentiviruses, 277, 277–278

Leukocytes. See Blood cells, white

Leydig cells, 908

LH. See Luteinizing hormone (LH)

Lichens, 720, 720–721, 721

and succession, 1035, 1035

Liebig, Justus von, 1039

Liebig’s Law of the Minimum, 1039

Life

chemical reactions leading to, 128–129

definition of, 8

elemental composition of, 1064

and the genetic code, 83

history of, 522–523, 523

origin of, 10–12, 14, 25–27, 548, 548–549

and origin of cell membranes, 91–92

and origin of eukaryotes, 557–562, 559, 560, 561

origin of molecules for, 45–47, 59

Page I-14

Life cycles

of algae, 621

and alternation of generations, 620–625

of amphibians, 970, 970

of angiosperms, 634

of ascomycetes, 730, 730

of basidiomycetes, 732, 733

of butterflies, 1011–1013, 1012

of ferns, 624

of fungi, 723–725, 725

of insects, 962–963, 963

of land plants, 627

of mosses, 622

Life histories, 1014–1015

Life tables, 1012, 1013

Ligand-binding sites, 185, 185

Ligand-gated ion channels, 186, 187, 751, 751–752

Ligands, 185, 185, 415

Light, visible, 160, 160

absorption of, 161, 161

Light (L) chains, 929, 929

Lignin, 211, 211

in the xylem, 610

Limbic systems, 778, 778

Linked genes, 353–355

distances between, 355–357

Linnaeus, Carolus, 464, 946

Lipase, 865, 865t, 867, 867

Lipid rafts, 93

Lipids, 39. See also Phospholipids

and cell membranes, 90

structure of, 43–45, 44, 45

Liposomes, 91, 91

Lipton, Allan, 183

Liver, 866, 867, 868

and the immune system, 928–929

Liverworts. See also Bryophytes

biodiversity of, 691, 691

Lizards, 970, 971

in amber, 1068, 1068

behaviors of, 985–986, 986

and island biogeography, 1018, 1019

niches of, 1023

and resource partitioning, 1025, 1025

whiptail, 903

Lobe-finned fish, 969, 969

Lobsters, 962

Logistic growth, 1009, 1009

visual synthesis of, 1040

Long-day plants, 662, 662, 663

Longitudinal muscles, 870, 870

Loops of Henle, 888, 888–890, 889, 890

Lophotrochozoans, 956–958, 957, 958, 959

phylogenetic tree for, 956

Lorenz, Konrad, 982, 992, 992, 997

Loss-of-function mutations, 411, 411

Lucy [hominin], 489, 489, 490

Lumen, 105, 156, 157, 870, 870

Lunar clocks, 993

Lungfish, 969, 969

Lungs, 830, 830, 832–835, 833, 834, 835

and diffusion, 581

evolution of, 968–969

Luteal phase, 909–911, 910

Luteinizing hormone (LH), 816t, 818, 908–909, 909, 910

Lycophytes, 600

biodiversity of, 694, 694–697, 695, 696

life cycle of, 623–624, 624

phylogenetic tree for, 695

Lymph, 843

Lymph nodes, 928, 928

Lymphatic system, 843

Lyon, Mary F., 380–381

Lysis, 392, 393

Lysogeny, 392–393, 393

Lysosomes, 102, 102, 107–108, 108

Lytic pathways, 392, 393

M

M phase, 221, 221–222

MAC. See Membrane attack complex (MAC)

MacArthur, Robert H., 904, 1017

MacLeod, Colin, 50–52

Macrophages, 102, 924, 925

Mainland populations, 453, 453

Major grooves, 55, 55–56

Major histocompatibility complex (MHC), 934, 935

Malaria, 422–424, 923

and antigenic variation, 938–939, 939

and coevolution, 434–435, 455–456

and drug resistance, 1089

and natural selection, 501–502

vaccination for, 424, 939

Malleus, 769, 770

Malpighian tubules, 884, 885

Malthus, Thomas, 4, 433, 1004, 1008

Mammals, 970–972, 971

hearts of, 846, 846–847

history of, 975

phylogenetic tree for, 972

respiratory systems of, 830, 833, 833–834, 834

Map information, 993, 994

Map units, 356

Margulis, Lynn, 558–559

Marine biomes, 1052, 1057–1059, 1059–1060

Mark-and-recapture, 1006, 1006–1007

Marler, Peter, 996

Marsupials, 971

Martin, John, 1065

Marzinger, Polly, 923

Mass extinctions, 474, 481–482, 482. See also Extinctions

of dinosaurs, 6, 474, 481, 975

evolutionary history of, 974, 974–975

and the fossil record, 474, 476

Mast cells, 924, 925, 926

Maternal-effect genes, 405

Maternal inheritance, 359–360, 360

Mating types, 725–726

Mayflies, 962

Mayr, Ernst, 446–447, 542–543

McCarty, Maclyn, 50

McClintock, Barbara, 300–301

Mechanical incompatibility, 450

Mechanoreceptors, 763, 764

and gravity and motion, 767–768, 768

and hearing, 768–771, 769, 770

Mechnikov, Ilya, 925

Mediator complexes, 61, 62

Medicine. See also Diseases and disorders; Drugs; Vaccination

and dialysis, 892

and drug resistance, 1089–1091

personalized, 274, 375

and reflexes, 758

regenerative, 403

and tissue rejection, 934

Medulla [brain], 777, 778

Medulla [kidney], 886–887, 887

Meiosis I, 226, 226–228, 228, 899, 900

vs. mitosis, 230, 231t

Meiosis II, 226, 228, 229, 231–233, 232, 899, 900

vs. mitosis, 230, 231t

Melanocytes, 199, 199

Melanophores, 202, 203

Melatonin, 817t, 821

Membrane attack complex (MAC), 927, 928

Membrane potentials, 745–753. See also Action potentials

and fertilization, 913

Membranes

basilar, 769, 770

cell, 90–94

extraembryonic, 905, 905

plasma, 14, 14, 94–100, 102, 103, 554, 554

tectorial, 769, 770

thylakoid, 156, 157

tympanic, 769, 769

Memory, 780, 780–781, 781

Memory cells, 924, 930, 930

Mendel, Gregor, 327

and independent assortment, 335–337

and linked genes, 353

and multiple genes, 366

and segregation, 330–335

and sex chromosomes, 346–347, 357

and transmission genetics, 326, 327–330, 364, 427

Mendeleev, Dmitri, 31

Mendel’s Laws. See also Principle of independent assortment; Principle of segregation

and the Modern Synthesis, 434

and relatedness, 999, 999–1000, 1000

visual synthesis of, 419

Menopause, 911

Menstrual cycles, 909–911, 910

Menstruation, 911

Merezhkovsky, Konstantin Sergeevich, 557–559

Meristem identity genes, 642–643

Meristems, 587–588, 588, 642

lateral, 651

root apical, 654, 654–655, 655

shoot apical, 642–646, 643

Merriman, Curtis, 372

Meselson, Matthew, 59, 248–249

Mesentery, 870, 870

Mesoderm, 400, 401, 914, 915

Mesoglea, 951, 951

Mesohyl, 950, 950

Mesophyll, 601, 602

Messel Shale, 476, 476

Messenger RNA (mRNA), 63, 63–64, 77

and gene regulation, 383, 383

polycistronic, 64

and structure of genes, 276–277, 277

Metabolism, 14–15, 116–118, 117

anaerobic, 144–146, 145

integration of, 147–150

Metamorphosis, 808, 809, 811, 962, 963

Metanephridia, 884, 884

Metaphase I [meiosis], 227, 228

Metaphase II [meiosis], 228, 229

Metaphase [mitosis], 224, 224

Metapopulations, 1015, 1015–1016

Metaprophase II [meiosis], 228, 229

Metastasis, 213, 213–214, 239

Methane. See also Fossil fuels

as greenhouse gas, 1074–1075

Methanogens, 546

Methylation, 378–379, 379

Page I-15

MHC. See Major histocompatibility complex (MHC)

Mice. See Mus musculus [mouse]

Micelles, 90, 91

Microbiomes. See Case 5: Human microbiome

Microfilaments, 200, 201, 201, 206t

movement of, 202–204, 203, 204

structure of, 201, 201–202

Microfossils, 573, 573

Microraptor gui [feathered dinosaur], 474

MicroRNA (miRNA), 66, 384

Microsporidia, 564

Microtubules, 200, 200, 206t

movement of, 202–204, 203, 204

structure of, 201, 201–202

Microvilli, 198, 198, 201, 201, 563, 564, 868, 868, 888

in the intestines, 868, 868

in the kidneys, 888

in taste buds, 766, 767

Midbrain, 777, 778

Middle ears, 769, 769–770

Midguts, 864, 864

Migration, 438

assisted, 1093

and climate change, 1077, 1078

and Hardy–Weinberg equilibrium, 430

Milkweed, 675, 675

Miller, Stanley, 45–46

Millipedes, 962

Minerals, 613–614, 613t

dietary, 860, 860

Minor grooves, 55, 55–56

miRNA. See MicroRNA (miRNA)

Missense (nonsynonymous) mutations, 297, 298

Mistletoe, 669, 669–670

Mitchell, Peter, 142–143

Mitochondria, 102, 102, 103, 111, 111. See also Chloroplasts; Organelles

and endosymbiosis, 171, 171, 527–528, 559, 560

inheritance of, 359–360, 360

and metabolism, 554, 555

and pyruvate oxidation, 137, 137

Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA), 491

and human origins, 491–495, 495

Mitochondrial genomes, 285

Mitochondrial matrix, 137, 137

Mitosis, 220, 222–226, 224

visual synthesis of, 240

vs. meiosis, 230, 231t

Model organisms. See Arabidopsis thaliana [mustard plant]; Caenorhabditis elegans [nematode worm]; Chlamydomonas [alga]; Drosophila melanogaster [fruit fly]; Escherichia coli [bacterium]; Mus musculus [mouse]; Pisum sativum [pea]; Saccharomyces cerevisiae [baker’s yeast]; Streptococcus pneumoniae [bacterium]; Strongylocentrotus purpuratus [sea urchin]; Volvox [alga]; Zea mays [corn]

Modern Synthesis, 434

Molars, 863, 863

Molecular clocks, 303, 440–441, 441, 471–472

Molecular evolution, 440, 440–441

and phylogenetic trees, 471–472, 472

Molecular fossils, 475–476

Molecular orbitals, 33, 33

Molecular self-assembly, 288

Molecular sequencing. See DNA sequencing

Molecules, 32–35, 33, 34

amphipathic, 90

cell adhesion, 206–207, 207

containing carbon, 38, 38–39, 39

hydrophilic vs. hydrophobic, 35

organic, 37, 39–45

and origin of life, 45–47, 59

polar vs. nonpolar, 35

representations of, 75, 76

signaling, 180, 180–181

Mollusks, 956, 957–958, 958, 959

Molting, 799, 808, 809, 810, 959–960

Monkeys, 486, 486–487, 487

evolution of, 440

Monocots, 704–707, 705, 706, 707

phylogenetic tree for, 705

Monod, Jacques, 388, 390–391

Monophyletic groups, 466, 467

Monosaccharides, 42–43, 43

dietary, 148, 149

Monotremes, 971

Monozygotic (identical) twins, 371, 371

Moran, Nancy, 1029

Morgan, Thomas Hunt, 348–350, 356

Morphospecies concept, 447

Mortality, and population size, 1007, 1007

Morulas, 400, 401, 914, 914

visual synthesis of, 916

Mosquitoes

and malaria, 422, 422–424, 423, 938–939, 939

Mosses. See also Bryophytes

biodiversity of, 690–691, 691

and convergent evolution, 692, 692

life cycle of, 621, 622, 623, 623

and patch habitats, 1015–1016, 1016

sphagnum, 693, 693

and succession, 1035, 1035

Moths

development of, 808, 808–811

and pheromones, 823, 823, 982, 983

Motor cortex, primary, 779, 779–780

visual synthesis of, 858–859

Motor endplates, 754, 791, 791

Motor neurons, 740, 744

Motor proteins, 202–204, 203, 204

Motor units, 795, 795–796

Mouths, 864, 864

digestion in, 864–865, 865

mtDNA. See Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA)

Mucosa, 870, 870

Multicellularity

and cell adhesion, 583–584

and cell communication, 584–585, 585, 586

and development, 585–587

and diffusion vs. bulk flow, 580–582, 582

evolution of, 578–580

evolution of complex, 589, 589–592, 590, 591, 592

phylogeny of, 578–580, 581, 589, 741, 946

in plants vs. animals, 587–589, 588

Multiple alleles, 340–341

Multiplication rule, 334, 334

Multipotent cells, 401

Multiregional hypothesis, 491–492

Mus musculus [mouse]

antibodies in, 932, 932

as model organism, 911

Muscles, 198, 198, 786, 786–792, 787, 788

building of, 796–797

cardiac, 847

circular, 870, 870

contraction of, 204, 789–792, 790, 791

longitudinal, 870, 870

properties of, 792–797, 794, 795, 796

and synapses, 753, 754

Mushrooms, 722–723, 723. See also Fungi

Mussels, 957–958, 1033

Mustard plant. See Arabidopsis thaliana [mustard plant]

Mutagens, 303–304

Mutations, 14, 51, 86, 292. See also Evolution; Genetic diversity; Natural selection

advantageous, 313, 313–314, 314, 427, 460–461

and cancer, 238–239, 239, 294, 294–295

in chromosomes, 301, 301–303, 302, 303

deleterious, 311–312, 312, 427, 460–461

frameshift, 298–299, 299

gain-of-function, 411, 411

and genetic variation, 14, 16, 427, 438

germ-line, 293–294, 427

and Hardy–Weinberg equilibrium, 430

loss-of-function, 411, 411

nonsense, 298, 298

nonsynonymous (missense), 297, 298

point, 297, 297–298, 298

and proofreading, 292

and protein evolution, 86–87

randomness of, 295–296

rates of, 292, 292–293, 293

small-scale, 297, 297–301, 298, 299

somatic, 293–294, 294, 427

spontaneous, 292

synonymous (silent), 297, 298

visual synthesis of, 418, 461

Mutualisms, 1028–1031, 1029, 1030, 1031t

in aphids, 1028–1030, 1029

and biodiversity, 1067

and human microbiome, 925

obligate vs. facultative, 1030

in plant roots, 616

in trees, 1022, 1022, 1028

visual synthesis of, 1041

Mycelia, 716

Mycorrhizae, 615, 615–616

Myelin sheaths, 749, 749

Myers, Norman, 1091

Mylle, Margaret, 890

Myofibrils, 787, 787, 788

Myoglobin, 796, 837, 838, 838–839, 839

Myosin, 204

in muscles, 786–790, 788, 789, 790

in slime molds, 566

Myotomes, 964, 965, 967

Myriapods, 962, 962

Myxobacteria, 531, 532. See also Bacteria

N

NAD+ or NADH. See Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD+, NADH)

National parks, 1092

Page I-16

Natural immunity. See Innate immunity

Natural killer cells, 924, 925

Natural selection, 15, 432–438. See also Evolution; Genetic diversity; Mutations

and allele frequency, 434

and climate change, 1077

and competition, 1024

directional, 435, 435–436

disruptive, 436, 437

in humans, 500–502, 501

and the scientific method, 4

and speciation, 459

stabilizing, 435, 435

visual synthesis of, 461

Nature vs. nurture. See Concordance

Nautilus, 958, 959

Navigation, 993, 994

Neanderthals, 491, 494

and human origins, 494–495, 495

Necrotrophic pathogens, 669

Negative feedback, 128, 757, 812

and autonomic nervous system, 757, 757

and carbon dioxide emissions, 1077

and endocrine systems, 812, 812–813

and menstrual cycles, 909

and transcriptional regulation, 386, 388

Negative regulation, 387, 387

Negative selection, 434, 936, 936

and molecular clocks, 441

Nekton, 1057

Nematocysts, 952, 952

Nematode worms, 960, 960. See also Caenorhabditis elegans [nematode worm]

Neoteny, 496, 497

Nephridia, 957, 957

Nephrons, 885, 886

mammalian, 886–887, 887, 889

Nerve cords, 740–741, 741

Nerve nets, 741, 742

Nerves, 740–741, 741

cranial, 754, 755

optic, 773, 774, 777

spinal, 754–755, 755

Nervous systems, 740–743

and behavior, 984–985

evolution of, 741–743, 742

organization of, 754–759, 755, 756

Neufeld, Fred, 51

Neural tubes, 964, 965

Neurons, 198, 198, 740–753

function of, 745–753

inter-, 740, 744

motor, 740, 744

pyramidal, 744, 744

sensory, 740, 744

structure of, 743, 743–745, 744

Neurosecretory cells, 811

Neurotransmitters, 743, 743

and cell signaling, 183–184

and synapses, 751, 752

Neutral mutations, 312–313, 427, 460–461

Neutrons, 30, 30

Neutrophils, 924, 925, 926

Niches, 1022–1023, 1023

Nicolson, Garth, 94

Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD+, NADH), 133, 137–138

and cellular respiration, 148, 148–149, 149

and the citric acid cycle, 138–140, 139

and the electron transport chain, 140–142, 141

and fermentation, 145, 145–146

Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH), 157, 158

in photosystems, 162–164, 164, 165

Niedergerke, Rolf, 789

Nilsson-Ehle, Herman, 366–367

Nirenberg, Marshall E., 80

Nitrification, 540

Nitrogen cycle, 539, 539–540

and ecology, 1062, 1062

human influences on, 1082–1084, 1083

visual synthesis of, 1086–1087

Nitrogen fixation, 539–540, 549, 616, 616

and fertilizers, 616–617

Nitrogenous wastes, 881–882, 882

Nociceptors, 764

Nodes of Ranvier, 749

Nodes [phylogeny], 464, 464

Nodes [plant morphology], 642, 642

Non-associative learning, 990

Non-random mating, 430, 439–440

and Hardy–Weinberg equilibrium, 430

Non-sister chromatids, 227, 227

Nondisjunction, 319, 319, 351

and disorders, 319–322, 320, 322

and genes in chromosomes, 350–351, 351

and spontaneous abortions, 322, 322–323, 323

Nonpolar covalent bonds, 34

Nonpolar molecules, 35

Nonrecombinants, 354

Nonself, 922–923

and T cells, 936

Nonsense mutations, 298, 298

Nonsynonymous (missense) mutations, 297, 298

Nontemplate strands, 60, 60

Normal distributions, 366, 367

Norms of reaction, 367, 367

Notochords, 964, 965, 967

visual synthesis of, 916–917

Nuclear envelope, 105, 105

Nuclear genomes, 285

Nuclear localization signals, 108

Nuclear pores, 105, 105

Nuclear transfer, 401, 401, 402

Nuclei [atomic], 30, 30

Nuclei [cellular], 14, 101, 101, 102, 103, 105

Nucleic acids, 12–14, 39. See also Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA); Ribonucleic acid (RNA)

and first cells, 59

and genetic information, 40–42

Nucleoids, 101, 101, 282, 282

Nucleolus, 66

Nucleosides, 54, 54

Nucleosomes, 282, 283

Nucleotide excision repair, 306, 306

Nucleotide substitutions, 297. See also Point mutations

Nucleotides, 39, 53, 53, 54

Nusslein-Volhard, Christiane, 405–406

O

Obligate mutualisms, 1030

Observations, 4–5. See also Scientific method

Occipital lobes, 778, 779

Occludins, 208, 210t

Ocean acidification, 1078–1080, 1079, 1080

Oceanic biomes, 1052, 1057–1059, 1059–1060

Octet rule, 33

Octopus, 957–958, 959

and learning, 990

Okazaki, Reiji, 252

Okazaki fragments, 252, 253, 253–254

and telomeres, 255

Olfaction, 766, 767

Oligonucleotides, 259

Omasum, 871, 871

Ommatidia, 771–772

On the Origin of Species [Darwin], 4, 47, 426, 432–433, 446, 486

Oncogenes, 236–239, 238

Oocytes, 231, 232, 405, 907, 908

Oogenesis, 911, 912

Oomycetes, 569–570

Open circulatory systems, 840–841, 841

Open reading frames (ORF), 276, 276

Operant conditioning, 990

Operators, 389, 389–390, 390

Operons, 83, 389, 389–391, 390, 391

Opisthokonta, 563–564, 564

fungi as, 726–727

Opossums, 971

Opsin, 771

and vision, 774, 774–775, 775

Opsonization, 927, 928

Optic nerves, 773, 774, 777

Orbitals, 30–31, 31

molecular, 33, 33

Orders, 467, 467

ORF. See Open reading frames (ORF)

Organ of Corti, 769, 770

Organelles, 101–104, 102, 103. See also Chloroplasts; Mitochondria

nucleoids of, 285

Organic molecules, 37, 39–45

origin of, 45–46

Organogenesis, 914

visual synthesis of, 917

Organs, 198–199. See also Cells; Tissues

immunological, 928, 928

sensory, 762, 762

Orgel, Leslie, 46

Orientation, 992–993

Origins of replication, 255, 255

Osmoconformers, 878

Osmoregulation, 877–880, 879, 880

Osmoregulators, 878–880, 879, 880

Osmosis, 97, 97, 876–878, 877

and bulk flow, 582

and capillaries, 843, 843

and red blood cells, 99, 99–100

reverse, 608

and water loss, 603

Osmotic pressure, 876, 877

Osteichthyes, 968–969, 969

Osteoblasts, 800

Osteoclasts, 802

Osteoporosis, 802

Out-of-Africa hypothesis, 491–495, 495

Outcrossing, and flowers, 632–634

Outer ears, 769, 769

Ova. See Eggs

Oval windows, 769, 770

Ovaries [flower], 630, 630

Ovaries [human], 818, 820, 907, 908

Oviducts, 907, 908

Oviparity, 905

Ovoviviparity, 905

Ovulation, 909, 910

Ovules, 625, 626, 630

and fertilization, 635–636

Oxidation–reduction reactions, 133–135, 134, 155, 535

photosynthesis, 155, 155

Page I-17

Oxidative phosphorylation, 133, 133, 135

Oxygen

and complex multicellularity, 590–591

in Earth’s atmosphere, 146, 171, 478, 523, 523, 549, 591

regulation of, in blood, 835

and respiratory systems, 828–830, 829

transport of, by hemoglobin, 837, 837–840, 838, 840

visual synthesis of, 976

Oxygen dissociation curves, 838, 838, 840

Oxygenic reactions, 535

Oxytocin, 816t, 818, 820

and positive feedback, 813

Oysters, 958

P

P1 generation, 329, 329

P (peptidyl) sites, 78, 78

p53 proteins, 238, 295

Pääbo, Svante, 494

Pacemakers, 847, 848

Paine, Robert, 1033

Pair-rule genes, 407, 407

Palindromic symmetry, 260–261

Pancreas, 866–868, 867

Pangaea, 478–479, 479

Paracrine signaling, 182, 183–184, 823

Paraphyletic groups, 466, 467

Parasexuality, 726, 726

in glomeromycetes, 728

Parasites, 1027, 1031t. See also Hosts

and co-speciation, 455–456, 456

plants as, 669, 669–670

worms as, 960

Parasympathetic division, 756, 756

and blood flow, 844

Parathyroid gland, 821

Parathyroid hormone (PTH), 817t, 821

Parenchyma cells, 606, 607

Parietal lobes, 778, 779

Parsimony, 471

Parthenogenesis, 898–899, 899, 903

Partial pressure, 828–829, 829

Partial reproductive isolation, 451

Pasteur, Louis, 10–11

Patches, 1015, 1015

Paternal inheritance, 359

Pathogens, 922. See also Diseases and disorders

avirulent, 670

bacteria as, 922, 923, 937–938, 938

biotrophic, 669

and drug resistance, 1089–1091, 1090

fungi as, 718–720, 719, 730–731, 922, 923

plant defenses against, 670, 670–673, 671, 672, 673

of plants, 668–670, 669, 673–674, 674

protists as, 922, 923, 938–939, 939

virulent, 670

viruses as, 922, 923, 937, 937

worms as, 922, 923

Pauling, Linus, 74

Pavlov, Ivan, 990

PCR. See Polymerase chain reactions (PCR)

PDGF. See Platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF)

Peas. See Pisum sativum [pea]

Peat bogs, 693, 693

Pedigrees, 339, 339, 340, 341

and X-linked genes, 351–353, 352

Pelagic biomes, 1060

Penicillin, 922

Penis, 906, 906–907

Pepsin, 865t, 866

Peptide bonds, 40, 40, 72, 72–73

Peptide hormones, 814, 814, 815

Peptidoglycans, 530

and gram-positive bacteria, 543

Pericycles, 655, 655

Periodic selection, 543

Periodic table of the elements, 31–32, 32

Peripatric speciation, 453, 453, 457

Peripheral membrane proteins, 94

Peripheral nervous system (PNS), 754–756, 755

Peristalsis, 864, 864, 869

Permeability, selective, 96, 96

Peroxisomes, 102, 102

Personalized medicine, 274, 375. See also Case 3: Personal genome

Perutz, Max, 74, 837

Pesticides, 683–684

Petals, 629, 629

Petroleum. See Fossil fuels

PFK-1. See Phosphofructokinase-1 (PFK-1)

3-PGA. See 3-Phosphoglycerate (3-PGA)

pH, 37

of blood, 37, 891

of cells, 40

and lysosomes, 108

and ocean acidification, 1078–1080, 1079, 1080

of stomach acid, 866

Phagocytes, 924, 925, 925–926, 926

Phagocytosis, 554, 555, 925, 925, 926

Pharyngeal slits, 964, 964, 967

Pharynx, 865, 865, 964

Phenols, 676, 677t

Phenotypes, 310–314, 330

constitutive, 390, 391

and environmental interaction, 365, 365–366, 426

and gene interaction, 338, 338–339

and Punnett squares, 331, 331

Phenylketonuria (PKU), 341

Pheromones, 823, 823–824, 824

and flowers, 631–632

Phloem, 607, 610–612, 611, 612

evolution of, 689

secondary, 651, 651–652

visual synthesis of, 711

Phloem sap, 611, 611

Phosphatases, 187, 187

Phosphate groups, 53, 53

Phosphodiester bonds, 41, 41, 54, 54–55

Phosphofructokinase-1 (PFK-1), 149–150, 150

3-Phosphoglycerate (3-PGA), 157, 158

Phospholipids, 45

Phosphorus cycle

and ecology, 1062–1063, 1063

human influences on, 1082–1084, 1083

visual synthesis of, 1086–1087

Phosphorylation, 187, 187

substrate-level vs. oxidative, 133, 133

Photic zone, 155, 1057

Photoheterotrophs, 537

Photoperiodism, 662, 662–664, 663, 993–994

and climate change, 1076–1077

Photoreceptors, 763, 764

Photorespiration, 168, 168–169, 604–606, 605

Photosynthesis, 112, 154–157

vs. cellular respiration, 171

efficiency of, 169, 169–170

evolution of, 170–171, 171

in extreme environments, 154, 154–155, 544

mechanism of, 160–166, 165

origin of, 570–572, 572

and photorespiration, 604–606, 605

problems with, 166–169

as redox reaction, 155, 155, 535

and short-term carbon cycle, 511, 511–513

visual synthesis of, 172

Photosynthetic electron transport chain, 155, 155–157

evolution of, 170–171, 171

and photosystems, 161–166, 164, 165

visual synthesis of, 172

Photosystems, 163–164, 164

and the photosynthetic electron transport chain, 161–164, 164

Phototrophs, 116, 117

Phototropism, 656–658, 657, 658

Photovoltaic cells, 170

Phyla, 467, 467, 946

of animals, 955t

Phylogenetic niche conservatism, 1023

Phylogenetic species concept (PSC), 448–449

Phylogenetic trees, 16–17, 17, 464, 465, 946–948. See also Taxonomy; Tree of life

for angiosperms, 703

for animals, 946, 947

for Archaea, 17, 534, 542, 545, 545–546

for arthropods, 962

for Bacteria, 17, 534, 540, 542, 542, 543

for Bilateria, 949

for complex multicellularity, 581, 589, 741

construction of, 468–472, 470

for ctenophores, 953–954, 954

for deuterostomes, 963

for ecdysozoans, 960

for eudicots, 708

for eukaryotes, 563, 563

and evolutionary history, 946

for ferns, 697

for fungi, 727

for gymnosperms, 699

for horsetails, 697

for lophotrochozoans, 956

for lycophytes, 695

for mammals, 972

for monocots, 705

for placozoans, 953–954, 954

for plants, 600, 600, 620, 688, 688

problem-solving with, 472–474

reading, 464–468

and speciation, 464, 464

for sponges, 950, 951

and taxonomy, 467, 467–468, 946–948

for vertebrates, 465, 465, 863, 967

Phylogeny, 464

and the fossil record, 482–483, 483

Phylum, 467, 467

Page I-18

Physics, 8–12

Physiology

and ecological systems, 19–20

visual synthesis of, 858–859

Phytochrome, 659–661, 660, 661

Phytoplankton, 1052

Pigmentation

incomplete, 191, 191

in skin, 199, 199, 202, 202

Pigments, 160–161

accessory, 161

melanin, 202, 203

Pili, 101, 532, 533

Pineal gland, 821

Pinnae, 698, 769, 769

Pinus taeda [pine tree], 625–627, 626

Pisum sativum [pea], 327

and Mendel’s experiments, 328–337

as model organism, 327–328

Pith, 646, 647, 651

Pits, 607, 607–608

Pituitary gland, 811, 818, 819, 819–820

PKU. See Phenylketonuria (PKU)

Placental mammals, 971–972

Placentas, 905, 970–971

Placozoans, 953, 954

phylogenetic tree for, 953–954, 954

Planaria, eyes in, 410, 410

Plankton, 962, 1052

Plant reproduction, 620

and alternation of generations, 620–624, 621, 622, 624

asexual, 638, 638–639

and flowers, 628–638, 629, 631, 634

and seeds, 625–628, 626, 627, 628

Plants. See also Vascular plants

biodiversity of, 682–684, 683, 684, 1066

biodiversity history of, 688–690, 690

cells of, 103, 103

and climate change, 1076–1077, 1077, 1078

composition of, 613t

crossing of, 328, 329

and defense against herbivores, 674–679

and defense against pathogens, 668–674

and defense resources, 679–682, 1014–1015

development of, 642–647, 643, 644, 647

environmental factors affecting, 656–661, 658, 660, 661

evolution of, 589, 589, 591–592, 600–601, 620–621, 621, 974

extracellular matrix in, 211, 211

and flowers, 628–631, 629, 630, 631

growth of, 650–653, 651, 652

hormones in, 647–650, 648t

leaves of, 601, 601–606, 602, 603

and photoperiod, 662, 662–664, 663

phylogenetic tree for, 600, 600, 620, 688, 688

as primary producers, 538–539

roots of, 601, 601, 612–617, 613, 614, 615, 616

seed, 625–628, 626, 627, 628

stems of, 601, 601, 606–612, 607, 609, 610, 611, 612

and succession, 1035, 1035

and symbiosis, 678, 678, 720, 720–721, 721

visual synthesis of, 976–977

Plasma, blood, 836, 836

Plasma cells, 924, 930, 930

Plasma membranes, 14, 14, 94–100, 102, 103, 554, 554. See also Cell membranes

and active transport, 97–100

and homeostasis, 96

and passive transport, 96–97

Plasmids, 101, 265, 530

and genetic engineering, 265

Plasmodesmata, 103, 210, 210t, 585, 586, Plasmodium falciparum [parasite], 422–424, 423, 570, 938–939, 939, 1089

Plasmogamy, 724, 725

Plasticity, synaptic, 780, 781

Plate tectonics, 517

and carbon dioxide, 520, 520

Platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF), 183–184, 191

and leukemia, 238

Platelets, 836

Platypus, 971

Playing, 990

Pleiotropy, 374

Ploidy, 223

Pluripotent cells, 401

Podocytes, 887, 888

Point mutations, 297, 297–298, 298

Pol II, 62

Polar bodies, 231, 232, 911, 912

Polar covalent bonds, 33–34, 34

Polar molecules, 35

Polar transport, 647–649, 649

Polarity, 55

Polarization, 745–746

Pollen, 625, 626

evolution of, 689

Pollen cones, 625, 626

Pollen tubes, 626, 626

Pollination, 625, 626

and biodiversity, 1067

and coevolution, 704

and flowers, 631, 631–632, 632

and ultraviolet light, 772, 772

visual synthesis of, 710

Poly(A) tails, 64, 64

Polyadenylation, 64, 64

Polycistronic mRNA, 64, 83, 83, 389, 389

Polymerase chain reactions (PCR), 257–259, 258

and DNA typing, 314–315, 315

Polymerization, 46, 47

and transcription, 62, 62–63

Polymers, 39

Polymorphisms, 310

beneficial, 313, 313–314, 314

harmful, 311–312

neutral, 312–313

Polypeptides, 72–73

Polyphyletic groups, 466, 467

Polyploidy, 223, 279, 281, 458

and instantaneous speciation, 458–459, 459

Polysaccharides, 42

dietary, 148, 149

Polyspermy, 912–913

Polytrichum commune [moss], 621–623, 622, 623

Pons, 777, 778

Population density, 1005, 1005

Population genetics, 426–430

and human origins, 494–495, 495

Population size, 1005, 1005

Populations, 426, 1005

age structure of, 1010, 1010–1015, 1011, 1012, 1013

features of, 1004, 1004–1006, 1005, 1006

growth and decline of, 1007, 1007–1010

and island biogeography, 1016–1019

mainland vs. island, 453, 453

sampling of, 1006–1007

visual synthesis of, 1040

Populus tremuloides [aspen tree], 638, 639

Positive feedback, 746, 812

and endocrine systems, 813, 813

and menstrual cycles, 909

Positive regulation, 387, 387

Positive selection, 434, 936, 936

Post-zygotic isolating factors, 449–450

Posterior pituitary gland, 819, 819

Postreplication mismatch repair, 304–305, 305

Posttranslational modification, 379, 385–386

Potatoes, and blight, 668, 668

Potential energy, 118, 118

and ATP synthesis, 142, 142

Potential evapotranspiration, 1050

Potential evapotranspiration ratio, 1050

Potentials

action, 746–749, 747, 748, 749

postsynaptic, 752–753, 753

resting membrane, 745, 746

threshold, 746, 747

Power strokes, 790

Pre-zygotic isolating factors, 449–450

Precipitation, 1049, 1049–1050, 1051

and butterfly wings, 593, 593

and cephalization, 742–743

and communities, 1032–1033, 1033

and deceit, 996

and ecological systems, 19, 555

and endocrine system, 821–822

evolution of, 573

and keystone species, 1033–1034, 1034

and muscle types, 797

and osmoregulation, 880–881, 881

and regulation of blood flow, 843–844

visual synthesis of, 1041

Pregnancy, 914, 914–918, 915, 918

Premolars, 863, 863

Preserves, wildlife, 1092

Pressure

osmotic, 876, 877

partial, 828–829, 829

Prey. See Predation

Primary active transport, 97–98, 98

Primary bronchi, 833, 834

Primary consumers, 521, 521

in aquatic biomes, 1052, 1058

in terrestrial biomes, 1050

visual synthesis of, 1086

Primary growth, 651

visual synthesis of, 710

Primary motor cortex, 779, 779–780

visual synthesis of, 858–859

Primary oocytes, 911, 912

Primary producers, 521, 521, 538, 1036–1037, 1037. See also Autotrophs

in aquatic biomes, 1052

global patterns of, 1063–1064, 1064

Page I-19

influences on, 1038–1039

in terrestrial biomes, 1050

visual synthesis of, 1086

Primary responses, 931, 931

Primary somatosensory cortex, 779, 779–780

Primary spermatocytes, 911, 912

Primary structure of proteins, 73, 73

Primary transcripts, 63, 63, 383

Primates, 486–487, 971

phylogenetic tree for, 16, 16–17, 486, 486–487, 487

Primers, 251, 252, 252

Primordia, 643, 644

Principle of independent assortment, 335–339, 336, 338

and chromosomes, 337–338, 338

and Punnett squares, 336, 337, 338

and segregation, 335–337

violations of, 353

Principle of segregation, 330–331, 331

and Punnett squares, 331, 336

Prions, 52

Probability, 333. See also Statistics

and normal distributions, 366, 367

and transmission genetics, 328, 333–334, 334

Probes, 262

Procambial cells, 646

Products, 35, 121, 121

Progesterone, 814, 816t, 818, 820, 908, 909, 910

Prokaryotes, 14, 101. See also Archaea; Bacteria

cell division in, 220–221

evolution of, 548, 548–551, 549

gene regulation in, 386–393

internal organization of, 101, 101

visual synthesis of, 976

Prolactin, 816t, 818

Proline, 71, 72

Prometaphase [mitosis], 224, 224

Prometaphase I [meiosis], 227, 228

Promoters, 60, 61

and sequence motifs, 276

and transcriptional regulation, 387, 387

Proofreading, 254, 254

and DNA repair, 304

and mutations, 292

Prophase [mitosis], 223, 224

Prophase I [meiosis], 226, 226–227, 228

Prophase II [meiosis], 228, 229

Prostate glands, 906, 906

Protease inhibitors, 676–677

Protein families, 86

Protein sorting, 108–111

Proteins, 13, 39, 73

in cell membranes, 93, 93–94, 94, 185, 185–187, 186

composition of, 40, 70–73

conformational changes in, 97

dietary, 149

evolution of, 86–87

evolutionarily conserved, 58

folding of, 73–77, 86, 86

G, 186, 186

hydrogen bonds in, 74, 75

motor, 202–204, 203, 204

p53, 238, 295

peripheral membrane, 94

posttranslational modification of, 379, 385–386

receptor, 93, 94, 180, 180–181

single-strand binding, 252, 253

structure of, 73, 73–77, 75, 76, 77

transcriptional activator, 61

transmembrane, 94, 207, 207

transporter, 93, 94

Proteobacteria, 543, 543. See also Bacteria

Prothoracicotropic hormone (PTTH), 809–811, 809t, 810, 811, 817

Protists, 562

fossil record of, 572–574, 573, 574

as pathogens, 922, 923, 938–939, 939

Proto-oncogenes, 238

Proton pumps, 140–142, 141, 164, 165

Protonephridia, 884, 884

Protons, 30, 30

Protostomes, 948, 949, 956

Protozoans, 562

Proximal convoluted tubules, 888, 888

PSC. See Phylogenetic species concept (PSC)

Pseudocoelomates, 947–948, 948

Pseudogenes, 441

Pteridium aquilinum [fern], 624, 624

Pterobranchs, 964, 964

PTH. See Parathyroid hormone (PTH)

PTTH. See Prothoracicotropic hormone (PTTH)

Public policy. See also Ethics

and carbon dioxide emissions, 1080–1082

and conservation biology, 1068, 1094–1095

and drug resistance, 1089–1091

and genetic engineering, 264, 267, 403

and sustainable development, 1093–1094

and vaccination, 176–178, 931, 938

Pullman, Philip, 1095

Pulmonary arteries, 846, 846

Pulmonary capillaries, 833, 833

Pulmonary valves, 846, 846

Pulmonary veins, 846, 847

Pumps

evaporative, 609, 609

osmotic, 611–612, 612

proton, 140–142, 141, 164, 165

Punnett, Reginald, 331

Punnett squares, 331

and complex traits, 366, 366–367

and epistasis, 338

and Hardy–Weinberg equilibrium, 431, 431–432

and incomplete dominance, 333

and independent assortment, 336, 337, 338

and segregation, 331, 336

and testcrosses, 332

and X-linkage, 348–349, 349

Pupae, 962, 963

Pupils, 773, 773

Purine bases, 41, 41–42, 54, 54

Pyloric sphincter, 866

Pyramidal neurons, 744, 744

Pyridamine bases, 41, 41–42, 54, 54

Pyruvate oxidation, 134, 135, 135, 137–138, 138

Q

Quantitative traits, 364–365

Quaternary structure of proteins, 73, 73, 76, 77

Quorum sensing, 181, 181

R

R genes, 671

R groups, 40, 40, 70, 70

R proteins, 670, 671

r-strategists, 904, 904, 1013, 1014

and succession, 1036

Race, 500. See also Ethnicity; Genetic variation

Racker, Efraim, 143

Radial symmetry, 947, 947

Radiation, adaptive, 454, 455

and evolutionary history, 974–975

Radiolaria, 573, 574

Radiometric dating, 477–478, 478

Rain forests, as biodiversity hotspots, 941–942, 942

Rain shadows, 1049, 1049

Ramón y Cajal, Santiago, 744

Ranges, 1005, 1005

Rats, and learning, 990–992

Raven, Peter, 682

Rays, 968

Reabsorption, 882–883, 883

Reactants, 35, 120, 121

Reaction centers, 162, 162

Reactions, chemical. See Chemical reactions

Reactive oxygen species, 167

Reading frames, 78

open (ORF), 276, 276

Realized niches, 1023, 1023

Receivers, 995–996

Receptor activation, 181, 181–182

and long-term responses, 192, 192, 193

and short-term responses, 187–188, 188

Receptor kinases, 186, 187

and long-term responses, 191, 191–194, 192, 193

Receptors, 93 94, 180, 180–181, 415

cell-surface, 185, 185–187, 186

chemo-, 763, 763–764, 766, 767

electro-, 764

electromagnetic, 764

G protein-coupled, 186, 186–187

intracellular, 185, 186

mechano-, 763, 764, 767–771, 768, 769, 770

photo-, 763, 764

T cell, 934, 934–935, 935, 936

thermo-, 764

toll-like, 926

Recessive traits, 328, 329

in pedigrees, 340, 341

Reciprocal altruism, 999

Reciprocal crosses, 329

Reciprocal inhibition, 758, 758–759

Reciprocal translocations, 303, 303

Recombinant DNA, 264–265, 265

and DNA editing, 267, 267–268

and genetically modified organisms, 266, 266–267

Recombinants, 354

and genetic distance, 355–357

and genetic variation, 427, 556

Rectum, 864, 864, 867

Red algae, 566, 567, 580

Red blood cells. See Blood cells, red

Red Queen hypothesis, 902, 1084

Redfield, Alfred, 1064

Redfield ratio, 1064

Redi, Francesco, 10–11

Redox reactions. See Oxidation–reduction reactions

Reduction, 157, 157

Reductional division, 228. See also Meiosis I

Reefs. See Coral reefs

Reflexes, 757–759, 758

Refractory periods, 747, 748, 748

Refuges, 1026, 1027

Regeneration, 157, 157

Regenerative medicine, 403

Page I-20

Regression toward the mean, 369, 369. See also Statistics

Regulatory transcription factors, 382, 382

Reinforcement of reproductive isolation, 459

Relatedness, 999, 999–1000, 1000

Release factors, 82, 82

Releasing factors, 815, 815, 816t, 818, 819

Renal cortex, 886–887, 887

Renal medulla, 886–887, 887

Renal systems. See Kidneys

Renal tubules, 885, 885–886

Renaturation, 261–263

Renin, 892, 893

Renner, Otto, 608

Repetitive DNA, 274, 274

in human genome, 280–281, 281

Replica plating, 295–296

Replication, 13–14, 51, 248

of chromosomes, 254–256, 255, 256, 257

of DNA, 248, 248–254

semiconservative, 248, 248–250

and structure of DNA, 57, 58

Replication bubbles, 255, 255

Replication forks, 248, 250, 253, 255

Repressors, 387, 387–388

and transcriptional regulation, 389, 389–390

Reproduction. See also Asexual reproduction; Sexual reproduction

evolutionary history of, 898–903

and fertilization, 912–913, 913

human, 905–911, 906, 907, 908, 909, 910

and pregnancy, 914–918

vegetative, 638, 638–639

visual synthesis of, 916–917

Reproductive isolation, 446–447, 447, 449–450, 450

partial, 451

reinforcement of, 459

Reptiles, 970, 971

hearts of, 845, 845–846

history of, 975

RER. See Rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER)

Reservoirs, 515–516, 516–517

Residues, 73

Resistance

basal, 671, 671

to drugs, 19, 87, 1089–1091

evolution of, 939

specific, 670, 671

systemic acquired (SAR), 671–673, 672

Resource partitioning, 1025, 1025

history of, 1068

Respiration. See also Cellular respiration

aerobic vs. anaerobic, 132, 150

and short-term carbon cycle, 511, 511–513

visual synthesis of, 1086–1087

Respiratory systems, 830, 830–835. See also Circulatory systems

and gills, 830, 830–831, 831, 832

and lungs, 830, 832–835, 833, 834, 835

and tracheae, 830, 833

Responding cells, 180, 180–181

Responses, 181, 181–182

and endocrine systems, 808–809

long-term, 191, 191–194, 192, 193

primary vs. secondary, 931, 931

short-term, 187–191, 188, 189, 190

Resting membrane potentials, 745, 746

Restriction enzymes, 260–261, 261t

Restriction fragment length polymorphisms (RFLP), 315–316, 316

Restriction sites, 260–261, 261t

Reticulum, 870, 871

Retinal, 774, 774

Retinas, 773, 773

Retrotransposons, 280–281, 281

Reverse osmosis, 608

Reverse transcriptase, 286

RFLP. See Restriction fragment length polymorphisms (RFLP)

Rhizosphere, 612

Rhodnius [insect], 809–811, 810, 811

Rhynie chert, 693–694, 694

Ribonucleic acid (RNA), 13, 40–42, 52. See also Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)

messenger (mRNA), 63, 63–64

other types of, 65–66

and transcription, 59–60

Ribose, 59, 59

Ribosomal RNA (rRNA), 66

and bacterial diversity, 540–542

Ribosomes, 58–59, 77–78, 78, 105

Ribulose 1,5-bisphosphate (RuBP), 157, 157

Ribulose bisphosphate carboxylase oxygenase (rubisco), 157, 157

and photorespiration, 168, 168–169

Rice, and symbiosis, 698–699

Riebesell, Ulf, 1080

Ring species, 448, 449

RISC. See RNA-induced silencing complex (RISC)

Risk factors. See Environmental risk factors; Genetic risk factors

Ritualization, 995

River biomes, 1057, 1058

RNA. See Ribonucleic acid (RNA)

RNA editing, 383, 383–384

RNA-induced silencing complex (RISC), 384, 385

RNA polymerase, 60

and transcription, 62, 62–63, 63

RNA polymerase complex, 382, 382

RNA primase, 252, 252

RNA processing, 64–65, 383

and gene regulation, 379, 383, 383–384, 384

visual synthesis of, 84

RNA splicing, 65, 65, 383, 383

RNA transcripts, 60, 60–66

RNA world hypothesis, 59, 83

Rod cells, 774, 774–775, 775

Root apical meristems, 654, 654–655, 655

Root caps, 654, 654

Root hairs, 613, 614, 614

Root nodules, 616, 616

Roots, 601, 601, 612–617, 613, 614, 615, 616

diversity of, 656

growth and development of, 654, 654–656, 655, 661

and phototropism, 658, 658

visual synthesis of, 711

Ross, A. F., 671

Rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER), 105, 106

Rous, Peyton, 236, 237

rRNA. See Ribosomal RNA (rRNA)

Rubisco. See Ribulose bisphosphate carboxylase oxygenase (rubisco)

RuBP. See Ribulose 1,5-bisphosphate (RuBP)

Rumbaugh, Susan Savage, 504

Rumen, 870, 871

Ruminants, 870–871, 871

Rutherford, Ernest, 31

S

S phase, 221, 222

Saccharides, 42

Saccharomyces cerevisiae [baker’s yeast], 717, 718

budding of, 898, 899

genome of, 278t

Saint-Hilaire, Étienne Geoffroy, 496

Salps, 966

Salt glands, 879, 879–880

Saltatory propagation, 749, 749

Sand dollars, 964

Sanger, Frederick, 263

Sanger sequencing, 263, 263–264. See also DNA sequencing

Sap, phloem, 611, 611–612, 612

Sapwood, 652

SAR. See Systemic acquired resistance (SAR)

Sarcomas. See Cancer

Sarcomeres, 788, 788–789, 789

Sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR), 791, 791

Sarich, Vince, 440

Saturated fatty acids, 43–44

and cell membranes, 92

Savanna biomes, 1050, 1056

Scaffolds, 282, 284

Schlieden, Matthias, 90

Scholander, Per Fredrick, 608

Schwann, Theodor, 90

Schwendener, Simon, 721

Scientific method, 4–8, 6. See also Experimentation; How Do We Know?

and evolution, 17–19

Sclera, 773, 773

Scorpions, 962

Scrotum, 906, 906

Sea anemones, 950–952, 951

Sea cucumbers, 964

Sea otters, 1033

Sea squirts, 966

Sea stars, 964, 965

and predator–prey dynamics, 736, 1033

Sea urchins, 964, 965. See also Strongylocentrotus purpuratus [sea urchin]

and keystone species, 1033, 1034

Seasonality, 1046, 1047

Seaweeds, 566–567

Second-division nondisjunction, 319, 319

Second law of thermodynamics, 9–10, 10, 119–120, 120

Second messengers, 188

Secondary active transport, 98–99, 99

Secondary consumers, 521, 521

in aquatic biomes, 1052, 1057

in terrestrial biomes, 1051–1052

visual synthesis of, 1086

Secondary growth, 651, 651

visual synthesis of, 710

Secondary oocytes, 911, 912

Secondary phloem, 651, 651–652

Secondary responses, 931, 931

Secondary sexual characteristics, 908–909

Secondary spermatocytes, 911, 912

Secondary structure of proteins, 73, 73–74, 75

Secondary xylem, 651, 651–652

Secretin, 867, 868

Secretion, 882–883, 883

Seed coats, 627, 627

Page I-21

Seed plants, 625–628, 626, 627, 628. See also Angiosperms; Gymnosperms

Seeds, 625, 627, 627–628

diversity of, 628

evolution of, 689

and fruits, 636, 636, 637

and germination, 659, 659–660

Segmentation, 404, 404

Segregation, 330–335. See also Principle of segregation

Selection, 87, 430. See also Artificial selection; Natural selection

balancing, 434

clonal, 930, 930–931

directional, 435, 435–436

disruptive, 436, 437

group, 998

and Hardy–Weinberg equilibrium, 430

intersexual, 438, 996

intrasexual, 437, 437–438

negative, 434, 441, 936, 936

periodic, 543

positive, 434, 936, 936

stabilizing, 435, 435

Selective permeability, 96, 96, 876, 877

Self, 922–923

and T cells, 936

Self-compatibility, 634

Self-incompatibility, 634

Self-propagation, 749

Semen, 906

Semicircular canals, 768, 768

Semiconservative replication, 248, 248–250

Seminal vesicles, 906, 906

Seminiferous tubules, 906, 907

Senders, 995–996

Sensitization, 990

Sensory neurons, 740, 744

Sensory organs, 762, 762

Sensory receptor cells, 762–763, 763

Sensory systems, 762, 762–766, 763, 764

Sensory transduction, 762–763, 763

Sepals, 629, 629

Sepkoski, Jack, 481, 974

Septa, 717, 717

Sequence assembly, 273, 273

Sequence motifs, 276, 276

Sequencing. See DNA sequencing

SER. See Smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER)

Serosa, 870, 870

Sertoli cells, 909

Set points, 756–757

Sex chromosomes, 223, 223, 320, 346. See also Chromosomes

extra or missing, 320–322, 322

and transmission genetics, 346–347, 347

Sex-determining region in the Y chromosome (SRY), 357, 914–915

Sex hormones, 814–815, 820

Sexual reproduction, 220, 899–900, 900

and genetic diversity, 556–557, 557

and meiosis, 231–233

twofold cost of, 901, 901

Sexual selection, 437, 437–438

in birds, 996

in humans, 500–501

Sharks, 968, 968

Shells [egg], 924, 963, 970

Shells [electron], 31, 31

Shine–Dalgarno sequences, 83, 83

Shoot apical meristems, 642–646, 643

Shoots, 601, 601

growth and development of, 642–647

and phototropism, 656–658, 657, 658

reproductive, 628–631, 629, 630, 631

and shade, 660, 660–661, 661

Short-day plants, 662, 662, 663

Shotgun sequencing, 273, 273

Shrimp, 962

Shubin, Neil, 481

Sickle-cell anemia, 298

and coevolution, 434–435, 455–456

and human evolution, 501–502

and mutations, 297–298, 310–311, 311, 317

Side chains, 40, 40, 70, 70

Siemens, Hermann, 372

Sieve plates, 611, 611

Sieve tubes, 611, 611–612, 612

Sigma factors, 60–61

Signal amplification, 188, 188, 189, 192, 192, 193

Signal-anchor sequences, 109, 110

Signal-recognition particles (SRP), 109–111, 110

Signal sequences, 108, 109

Signal transduction, 181, 181–182, 415, 415–417, 416

Signaling cells, 180, 180–181

Signaling molecules, 180, 180–181

Silencers, 382, 382

Silent (synonymous) mutations, 297, 298

Silverfish, 962

Simberloff, Daniel, 1017

Singer, S. Jonathan, 94

Single-gene traits, 364

Single-lens eyes, 771, 772

Single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNP), 316–317, 317

and genetic mapping, 356–357, 357

and pedigrees, 340–341

Single-strand binding protein, 252, 253

Sinks, 611

Sinoatrial (SA) nodes, 847, 848

siRNA. See Small interfering RNA (siRNA)

Sister chromatids, 223, 223

Sister groups, 465–466, 466

and synapomorphies, 469

and taxonomy, 468

Size, population, 1005, 1005

Skeletal muscles, 787, 787

organization of, 787, 787–789, 788

types of, 796, 796–797

Skeletons, 797–800

vertebrate, 800–804, 966, 967

Skin, 199, 199–200

and innate immunity, 924, 924

Sliding filament model, 789, 789–790

Slime molds, 565, 565–566, 566, 580

Slow-twitch muscles, 796, 796

Small interfering RNA (siRNA), 66, 384, 673

and plant defenses, 673, 673

Small intestines, 864, 864, 866–868, 867, 868, 869

Small nuclear RNA (snRNA), 66

Small regulatory RNA, 384, 385

Smell, 766, 767

Smith, John Maynard, 901

Smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER), 105, 106

Smooth muscles, 787, 787

regulation of, 792

Snails, 957–958, 958

Snottites, 25–26, 26

SNP. See Single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNP)

snRNA. See Small nuclear RNA (snRNA)

Social behavior, 997–1001, 998

Soil, and plants, 613–614

Solar radiation

and climate, 1046, 1046–1047

and global warming, 1075

Solubility, 836–837

Solutes, 876

Solutions, aqueous, 35

and osmosis, 99

pH of, 37

Solvents, 35

Somatic cells, 293

Somatic mutations, 293–294, 294, 427

Somatic nervous system, 755

Somatosensory cortex, primary, 779, 779–780

Sound, 768, 770–771

Sources, 611

Southern, Edwin M., 262

Southern blots, 262, 262–263

Soybeans, and nitrogen fixation, 539, 539, 549

Spatial summation, 752–753, 753, 765, 765

Speciation, 446, 450–451, 451, 457

allopatric, 451–456

and genetic divergence, 451

instantaneous, 458, 458–459, 459

and isolation of populations, 451–455, 452, 453, 454

and natural selection, 459

peripatric, 453, 453

and phylogenetic trees, 464, 464

sympatric, 456, 456–457

visual synthesis of, 460–461

Species, 426, 446, 446

and the biological species concept (BSC), 446–449

cryptic, 447, 448

and the ecological species concept (ESC), 448

endangered, 22, 22, 1091, 1092, 1092

endemic, 1019, 1067, 1091

invasive, 1088–1089, 1089

keystone, 1033–1034, 1034

and the morphospecies concept, 447

and the phylogenetic species concept (PSC), 448–449

ring, 448, 449

sub-, 451

threatened, 700, 1092, 1092

Species–area relationship, 1018, 1018

and the latitudinal diversity gradient, 1067

Specific resistance, 670, 671

Spectrum, electromagnetic, 160, 160

Sperm, 231, 232, 899, 907

development of, 911, 912

flagella in, 231, 906, 907

mutation rates in, 293

Spermatogenesis, 911, 912

Sphagnum moss, 693, 693

Spicules, 950, 950, 973

Spiders, 962

Spinal cords, 754, 755

Page I-22

Spinal nerves, 754–755, 755

Spiracles, 830, 832, 963

Spleen, 928, 928

Spliceosomes, 65

Sponges, 948–950, 950

and diffusion, 581, 581

fossils of, 973–974

phylogenetic tree for, 950, 951

and reefs, 975

Spongy bone, 801, 801

Spontaneous generation, 10–11

Spontaneous mutations, 292

Sporangia, 622

in bryophytes, 622, 622

in fungi, 722, 722

in slime molds, 565, 565

Spores, 622, 899. See also Ferns; Fungi; Horsetails; Lycophytes

of fungi, 722, 722–723, 723, 724

Sporophytes, 622, 622

evolution of, 691, 691–692

Sporopollenin, 622

Squid, 957–958

eyes in, 410, 410, 772, 772, 777

luminescence in, 527, 527

SR. See Sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR)

SRP. See Signal-recognition particles (SRP)

SRY. See Sex-determining region in the Y chromosome (SRY)

Stabilizing selection, 435, 435

Stahl, Franklin W., 248–249

Stamens, 629, 629–630, 630

Stapes, 769, 770

Starch, 39, 43, 147, 147

and the Calvin cycle, 158, 160, 160

Starling’s Law, 792, 848–849

Statistics

and cladistics, 471

and genetic drift, 438–439–439

and normal distributions, 366, 367

and probabilities, 333

and regression toward the mean, 369, 369

and transmission genetics, 328, 333–334

Statocysts, 767–768, 768

Statoliths, 658, 659, 767–768, 768

Stem cells, 256, 401–402

induced pluripotent, 403

Stems, 601, 601, 606–612, 607, 609, 610, 611, 612. See also Phloem; Xylem

branching of, 644, 644–646

growth of, 642–644, 644

Stereocilia, 767, 769, 770

Stereotyped behaviors, 983–984, 984

Stern, Kurt, 126

Steroid hormones, 814–815, 815

Steroids, 44. See also Hormones

Stigma, 630, 630

and crossing plants, 328, 329

Stimuli, 984, 984

Stoeckenius, Walther, 143

Stomachs, 864, 864–866, 866

Stomata, 602–603, 603

Stop codons, 80

and structure of genes, 276–277, 277

Stramenopila, 568–570, 569

Streptococcus pneumoniae [bacterium], 50–52, 532

communication among, 181

Striated muscles, 787, 787

Strigolactone, 647, 648t, 650

Stroke volume (SV), 848–849

Stroma, 156, 157

Stromatolites, 548, 548

Strongylocentrotus purpuratus [sea urchin]

cell-cycle regulation in, 234, 234

fertilization in, 912–913

Structural genes, 389

Sturtevant, Alfred H., 353, 356

Styles, 630, 630

Suberin, 652

Submucosa, 870, 870

Subspecies, 451

Substrate-level phosphorylation, 133, 133

Substrates, 125, 125–126, 126

Succession, 1035, 1035–1036

visual synthesis of, 1040–1041

Suction feeding, 862, 862

Suess, Hans, 513–514

Sugars, 39, 53. See also Carbohydrates

dietary, 147, 148

Sulci, 778, 779

Sulfur cycle, 538, 538–539

Supercoils, 58, 58, 281–282, 282

Superkingdoms, 563

Supernormal stimuli, 984, 984

Superorganisms, 1001, 1031–1032

Surfactants, 833

Survivorship, 1011–1013, 1012, 1013

and reproductive patterns, 1014

Suspension filter feeding, 861, 861

Sustainable development, 1093–1094

Sutherland, John, 46

SV. See Stroke volume (SV)

Swallowing, 865, 865

Swim bladders, 968–969

Symbionts, 557

Symbiosis, 557, 1028, 1030. See also Endosymbiosis

between animals and bacteria, 869

between plants and ants, 678, 678

between plants and fungi, 720, 720–721, 721

and root nodules, 616, 616

Symmetry, 947, 947

Sympathetic division, 756, 756

and blood flow, 844

Sympatric speciation, 456, 456–457, 457

Synapomorphies, 469, 469

Synapses [cell junction], 743, 743

and neuron communication, 749, 751, 751–752

Synapsis [meiosis], 227

Synaptic clefts, 743, 743

Synaptic plasticity, 780, 781

Synonymous (silent) mutations, 297, 298

Systemic acquired resistance (SAR), 671–673, 672

Systole, 847, 847

Szostak, Jack W., 59

T

T cell receptors (TCR), 934, 934–935, 935, 936

T cells, 924, 928, 934, 934–936, 935, 935t, 936

Taiga biomes, 1050, 1053

Tannins, 676

Taste, 766, 767

Taste buds, 766, 767

TATA boxes, 60, 382, 382

Taxa, 466

Taxis [movement], 993

Taxonomy, 464–465, 467, 467–468, 946. See also Phylogenetic trees

TCR. See T cell receptors (TCR)

Tectorial membranes, 769, 770

Teeth, 863, 863–864

Telomerase, 255–256, 257

Telomeres, 256, 256, 257

Telophase [mitosis], 224, 225

Telophase I [meiosis], 228, 228

Telophase II [meiosis], 228, 229

Temin, Howard, 286

Temperate coniferous forest biomes, 1050, 1054

Temperate grassland biomes, 1050, 1055

Temperature regulation, 756–757, 757

Temperature (T). See also Climate change; Global warming

absolute, 121–122

and climate, 1046–1050

history of Earth’s, 518–519, 519

Template strands, 52, 60, 248, 248

Temporal isolation, 450

Temporal lobes, 778, 779

Temporal summation, 752–753, 753, 765, 765

Temporomandibular joints, 863, 863

10-nm fibers, 282, 283

Tendons, 800

Termination [cell communication], 181, 181–182

and long-term responses, 192, 192, 193

and short-term responses, 190, 190–191

Termination [translation], 81–83, 82, 83

Terminators, 60, 61

Terpenes, 676, 677t

Terrestrial biomes, 1050–1051, 1052–1057

Tertiary structure of proteins, 73, 73, 75–76, 76

Test groups, 5–6

Testcrosses, 332, 332, 333t

and Punnett squares, 332

Testes, 818, 820, 905, 906, 907

Testosterone, 814, 817t, 818, 820, 908–909, 909

and behavior, 985–986, 986

Tests of protists, 562

Tetanus, 795, 795

Tetraploidy, 323, 323

Tetrapods, 969–970

history of, 975

Thalamus, 778, 778

Thallus, 691, 691

Thaumarchaeota, 545, 546–548

Theories, 6, 8. See also Scientific method

Thermodynamics, laws of, 9, 9–10, 10, 119, 119–120, 120

and chemical reactions, 121, 121–122

Thermoreceptors, 764

Thermoregulation, 756–757, 757

visual synthesis of, 858–859

Thick filaments, 788, 788–789, 789

Thin filaments, 788, 788–789, 789

30-nm fibers, 282, 283

Thomas, Eugen, 721

Thoreau, Henry David, 1076–1077

Threatened species, 1092, 1092

cycads as, 700

39 ends, 55, 55–56

and replication, 250, 250–251

and transcription, 62, 62

Threshold potentials, 746, 747

Thylakoid membranes, 156, 157

Thylakoids, 112

Thymine (T), 41, 41, 54, 54

Thymus, 928, 928

Thyroid gland, 818, 820

Page I-23

Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH), 816t, 818, 818

Ti plasmids, 673–674, 674

Tidal ventilation, 832–833, 833

Tidal volume, 833, 833

Tight junctions, 208, 209, 210, 210t

and blood–brain barrier, 744–745

Tiktaalik roseae [fish–tetrapod link], 479, 481, 481

Tilman, David, 1039

TIM barrels, 86, 86

Timescale, geologic. See Geologic timescale

Tinbergen, Niko, 982, 990–991, 997

Tissues, 198–199. See also Cells; Organs

TLR. See Toll-like receptors (TLR)

Toads. See Amphibians; Xenopus laevis [toad]

Tobacco mosaic virus, 287, 287–288, 288, 671, 671–673, 682

Tolerance, 936

Toll-like receptors (TLR), 926

Tonegawa, Susumu, 932

Topography, 1046–1049

and rain shadows, 1049, 1049–1050

Topoisomerase II, 58, 252, 253, 281

Torque, 803, 803

Totipotent cells, 400–401

Trabeculae, 801

Trace fossils, 475, 475, 973

Tracheae, 830, 830, 832, 833, 834, 963

Tracheids, 607, 607–608

Trade-offs, 681, 681–682

and life histories, 1014–1015

Traits. See Complex traits; Dominant traits; Recessive traits; Single-gene traits

Transcription, 13, 52, 53, 58–63

and gene expression, 379, 382, 382

mechanism of, 60, 60–63

regulation of, 387, 387–388

RNA and DNA in, 59–60

and RNA transcripts, 63–66

and structure of DNA, 57

visual synthesis of, 84

Transcription factors

evolutionary conservation of, 410–412, 498, 498

general, 61, 382, 382

gradients in, 406, 406

regulatory, 382, 382

Transcriptional activator proteins, 61

Transcriptional regulation, 382, 382

from chromatin to mRNA, 378–384

epigenetic mechanisms of, 379

hierarchical, 404–410

from mRNA to phenotype, 384–386

in prokaryotes, 386–393

visual synthesis of, 394

Transduction, 533, 533

Transfer RNA (tRNA), 66

Transformation, 50, 265, 265, 533, 533

Transgenic organisms, 266, 266–267. See also Genetic engineering

Transition states, 124, 125

Translation, 13, 52, 53, 77–83

regulation of, 379, 384–385, 385

and structure of DNA, 57

visual synthesis of, 85

Translocations

reciprocal, 303, 303

unbalanced, 323

Transmembrane proteins, 94

and cell adhesion, 207, 207

Transmission, cultural, 370

Transmission genetics, 326

in family histories, 339, 339–342, 340, 341

foundations of, 327–330

and independent assortment, 335–339

and segregation, 330–335

and sex chromosomes, 346–347, 347

Transpiration, 602, 602

Transporter proteins, 93, 93. See also Active transport

Transposable elements (transposons), 280–281, 281, 300, 300–301

Transposase, 301

Transposition, 301

Tree of life, 16–17, 17, 465, 472, 534, 542, 946–948. See also Phylogenetic trees

Tree rings. See Growth rings

Trees. See also Angiosperms; Gymnosperms

and density-dependent mortality, 683, 683

mutualisms in, 1022, 1022, 1028

and succession, 1035, 1035

Triacylglycerol, 43, 44

Tricarboxylic (TCA) cycle. See Citric acid cycle

Trilobites, 973, 974

Trimesters, 913–915, 914

Triose phosphates, 158

Triploblastic animals, 948, 949

Triploidy, 323, 323

Trisomy 21, 319–321, 320

tRNA. See Transfer RNA (tRNA)

Trophic pyramids, 1037–1038, 1038

in continental shelf biomes, 1058

Tropic hormones, 820

Tropical rain forest biomes, 1050, 1050, 1057

Tropism, 656

Tropomyosin, 788, 788

Troponin, 791, 791

True breeding, 328. See also Artificial selection

Truffles, 730

Trypsin, 865t, 867

TSH. See Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)

Tube feet, 964, 965

Tuberculosis, 937–938, 938, 1090

Tubulin, 200, 200, 206t

Tumor suppressors, 238

Tundra biomes, 1050, 1052

Tunicates, 964–966, 966

Turgor pressure, 100

in hyphae, 717

and phloem sap, 612, 612

Turner syndrome, 322, 322

Turpin, Raymond, 320

Turtles, 970, 971

Twin studies, 371–373, 373t

Twins, identical vs. fraternal, 371, 371

Twitch, 795, 795

Twofold cost of sex, 901, 901

Tympanic membranes, 769, 769

U

Unbalanced translocation, 323

Unsaturated fatty acids, 43–44

and cell membranes, 92

Uracil (U), 41, 41, 59, 59

Urea, 878

and cartilaginous fish, 968

and nitrogenous wastes, 881–882, 882, 886

Ureters, 885, 885

Urethra, 906, 906

Urey, Harold, 45

Uric acid, and nitrogenous wastes, 882, 882, 886

Urine, 891–892, 892

Uterus, 907, 908

V

Vaccination, 931. See also Drugs

for cancer, 176–178

for malaria, 424, 939

for tuberculosis, 938

Vacuoles, 100, 101, 103

contractile, 100, 883, 883

Vagina, 908, 908

Valence electrons, 33

Valves

aortic, 846, 847

pulmonary, 846, 846

in veins, 843, 843

Van der Waals forces, 44, 45

and cell membranes, 92

Variable expressivity, 341–342

Variable number of tandem repeats (VNTR), 314–315, 315

and pedigrees, 341

Variable (V) regions, 929, 929, 932

Variables, 5–6

Variation. See also Genetic variation

environmental vs. genetic, 16

and evolution, 15–16

and mutations, 14

Vas deferens, 906, 906, 907

Vasa recta, 890, 890

Vascular cambia, 651, 651–652

and convergent evolution, 696, 696

Vascular plants, 600. See also Angiosperms; Ferns; Gymnosperms; Horsetails; Lycophytes

and bulk flow, 582

evolution of, 689, 693–694, 694

Vascular system

and bulk flow, 582, 583

development of, 646–647, 647

Vascular wilt disease, 671, 672

Vasoconstriction, 844

Vasodilation, 844

Vasopressin. See Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)

Vavilov, Nicolai, 709

Vectors, 265, 265

Vegetative reproduction, 638, 638–639

Veins [animal], 841, 842, 843

pulmonary, 846, 847

Veins [plant], 601, 602

Venae cavae, 843, 846

Ventilation, 829

tidal, 832–833, 833

Venules, 841, 842

Vernalization, 664

Vertebrae, 966, 967

Vertebral columns, 964

Vertebrates, 964

biodiversity of, 966–972, 967, 968, 969, 970, 971

fossils of, 973

phylogenetic tree for, 465, 465, 863, 967

respiratory systems of, 830, 832–835

Vesicles, 104, 104, 554, 554

Vessel elements, 607, 607, 653, 653

Vessels, 607, 607–608

Vestibular system, 768, 768

Vestigial structures, 871–872

Page I-24

Vicariance, 451–455, 452, 453, 453, 454, 457

Villi, 868, 868

Virchow, Rudolf, 90

Virulent pathogens, 670

Viruses, 15, 277, 285–288

classification of, 286, 286

genomes of, 279, 280, 286–287

in marine biomes, 1058–1059

as pathogens, 922, 923, 937, 937

and transcriptional regulation, 391–393, 392, 393

visual synthesis of, 394–395

Visible light, 160, 160

Vision, 771–777, 772, 773, 774, 776

color, 774–775, 775

Visual cortex, 777

Visual syntheses

angiosperms, 710–711

biodiversity through time, 976–977

cellular communities, 240–241

ecosystems, 1086–1087

genetic variation and inheritance, 418–419

homeostasis and thermoregulation, 858–859

photosynthesis and cellular respiration, 172–173

reproduction and development, 916–917

speciation, 460–461

succession, 1040–1041

viruses, 394–395

Vitamins, 860–861, 861t

Vitreous humor, 773, 773

Viviparity, 905

VNTR. See Variable number of tandem repeats (VNTR)

Vocal cords, 833, 834

Volcanism, and global warming, 1075

Voles, 989, 989

Voltage-gated channels, 746

Voluntary nervous system. See Somatic nervous system

Volvox [alga], 567, 568, 587

Vulva, 908, 909

W

Wallace, Alfred Russel, 433, 433

Wasps, 962

as eusocial insects, 1001

and learning, 990–991, 991

Water, 35–37

balance of, 876–881, 877, 879

and ecosystems, 1038–1039

as greenhouse gas, 1074

hydrogen bonds in, 35–36, 36

as polar molecule, 35, 36

properties of, 36, 36–37

transport of, in xylem, 609, 609

Water vascular system, 964, 965

Watson, James D., 53, 55, 57, 248–249, 257, 837

Weinberg, Wilhelm, 430

Went, Frits, 657

Whales, 971

and myoglobin, 839, 839

social behavior in, 997–998, 998

Wheat

breeding of, 637, 684, 734

domestication of, 595–596, 596

White blood cells. See Blood cells, white

White matter, 778, 779

Wieschaus, Eric F., 405–406

Wiesel, Torsten, 776–777

Wigglesworth, Vincent, 809–811

Wild types, 348

Wilson, Allan, 440, 487–488, 491, 496

Wilson, E. O., 904, 1001, 1017, 1084

Wilson, H. V., 206

Woese, Carl, 534

Wood, 652–653, 653

decomposition of, 719, 719

evolution of, 696, 696

Work. See also Energy

and muscles, 786

and thermodynamics, 120

Worms. See also Caenorhabditis elegans [nematode worm]

acorn, 964, 964

annelid, 956–957, 957

excretory organs of, 884, 884

nematode, 960, 960

as pathogens, 922, 923

X

X-inactivation, 321, 380–382, 381

in clones, 403, 403

X-linked genes, 348–353, 349, 352

and Punnett squares, 348–349, 349

Xanthophylls, 167, 168

Xenopus laevis [toad], 401–402, 402

Xylem, 606–610, 607, 607, 609, 610

evolution of, 689

secondary, 651, 651–652

visual synthesis of, 711

Y

Y-linked genes, 357–359, 358, 359

and human origins, 494–495

Yeasts, 717, 717–718. See also Saccharomyces cerevisiae [baker’s yeast]

Yolks, 904, 905, 970

visual synthesis of, 917

Young, Larry, 989

Z

Z discs, 788, 788–789, 789

Z-scheme, 163, 164

Zea mays [corn]

and agriculture, 1083, 1083

and directional selection, 436, 436

mutations in, 300, 300–301

Zona pellucida, 912–913, 913

Zygomycetes, 728, 728

Zygotes, 232, 331, 400, 400, 556, 557, 900, 900, 914

visual synthesis of, 916

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