Module 24 Review

REVIEW Studying and Encoding Memories

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

RETRIEVAL PRACTICE Take a moment to answer each of these Learning Objective Questions (repeated here from within this section). Then click the 'show answer' button to check your answers. Research suggests that trying to answer these questions on your own will improve your long-term retention (McDaniel et al., 2009).

24-1 What is memory, and how is it measured?

Memory is learning that has persisted over time, through the encoding, storage, and retrieval of information. Evidence of memory may be recalling information, recognizing it, or relearning it more easily on a later attempt.

24-2 How do psychologists describe the human memory system?

Psychologists use memory models to think and communicate about memory. Information-processing models involve three processes: encoding, storage, and retrieval. Our agile brain processes many things simultaneously (some of them unconsciously) by means of parallel processing. The connectionism information-processing model focuses on this multitrack processing, viewing memories as products of interconnected neural networks. The three processing stages in the Atkinson-Shiffrin model are sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory. This model has since been updated to include two important concepts: (1) working memory, to stress the active processing occurring in the second memory stage; and (2) automatic processing, to address the processing of information outside of conscious awareness.

24-3 How do explicit and implicit memories differ?

The human brain processes information on dual tracks, consciously and unconsciously. Explicit (declarative) memories—our conscious memories of facts and experiences—form through effortful processing, which requires conscious effort and attention. Implicit (nondeclarative) memories—of skills and classically conditioned associations—happen without our awareness, through automatic processing.

24-4 What information do we process automatically?

In addition to skills and classically conditioned associations, we automatically process incidental information about space, time, and frequency.

24-5 How does sensory memory work?

Sensory memory feeds some information into working memory for active processing there. An iconic memory is a very brief (a few tenths of a second) sensory memory of visual stimuli; an echoic memory is a three- or four-second sensory memory of auditory stimuli.

24-6 What is the capacity of our short-term and working memory?

Short-term memory capacity is about seven items, plus or minus two, but this information disappears from memory quickly without rehearsal. Working memory capacity varies, depending on age, intelligence level, and other factors.

24-7 What are some effortful processing strategies that can help us remember new information?

Effective effortful processing strategies include chunking, mnemonics, hierarchies, and distributed practice sessions. The testing effect is enhanced memory after consciously retrieving, rather than simply rereading, information.

24-8 What are the levels of processing, and how do they affect encoding?

Depth of processing affects long-term retention. In shallow processing, we encode words based on their structure or appearance. Retention is best when we use deep processing, encoding words based on their meaning. We also more easily remember material that is personally meaningful—the self-reference effect.

TERMS AND CONCEPTS TO REMEMBER

RETRIEVAL PRACTICE Match each of the terms on the left with its definition on the right. Click on the term first and then click on the matching definition. As you match them correctly they will move to the bottom of the activity.

Question

memory
recall
recognition
relearning
encoding
storage
retrieval
parallel processing
sensory memory
short-term memory
long-term memory
working memory
explicit memory
effortful processing
automatic processing
implicit memory
iconic memory
echoic memory
chunking
mnemonics [nih-MON-iks]
spacing effect
testing effect
shallow processing
deep processing
encoding that requires attention and conscious effort.
the processing of information into the memory system—for example, by extracting meaning.
the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system. Includes knowledge, skills, and experiences.
organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically.
encoding semantically, based on the meaning of the words; tends to yield the best retention.
retention of learned skills or classically conditioned associations independent of conscious recollection. (Also called nondeclarative memory.)
encoding on a basic level based on the structure or appearance of words.
a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds.
memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices.
enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading, information. Also sometimes referred to as a retrieval practice effect or test-enhanced learning.
the persistence of learning over time through the encoding, storage, and retrieval of information.
the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice.
unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of well-learned information, such as word meanings.
activated memory that holds a few items briefly, such as the seven digits of a phone number while calling, before the information is stored or forgotten.
the processing of many aspects of a problem simultaneously; the brain’s natural mode of information processing for many functions.
the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system.
a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second.
a measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier, as on a fill-in-the-blank test.
a measure of memory that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material again.
the process of retaining encoded information over time.
a measure of memory in which the person need only identify items previously learned, as on a multiple-choice test.
the process of getting information out of memory storage.
a newer understanding of short-term memory that focuses on conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory.>
memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and “declare.” (Also called declarative memory.)

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