39-2 What are the causes and consequences of anger?

Anger, the sages have said, is “a short madness” (Horace, 65-8 b.c.e.) that “carries the mind away” (Virgil, 70–19 b.c.e.) and can be “many times more hurtful than the injury that caused it” (Thomas Fuller, 1654–1734). But they have also said that “noble anger” (William Shakespeare, 1564–1616) “makes any coward brave” (Cato, 234–149 b.c.e.) and “brings back … strength” (Virgil).

When we face a threat or challenge, fear triggers flight but anger triggers fight—each at times an adaptive behavior. What makes us angry? Sometimes anger is a response to someone’s perceived misdeeds, especially when the person’s act seems willful, unjustified, and avoidable (Averill, 1983). But small hassles and blameless annoyances—foul odors, high temperatures, a traffic jam, aches and pains—also have the power to make us angry (Berkowitz, 1990).

Anger can harm us: Chronic hostility is linked to heart disease. Anger boosts our heart rate, causes our skin to drip with sweat, and raises our testosterone levels (Herrero et al., 2010; Kubo et al., 2012; Peterson & Harmon-Jones, 2012). Anger also triggers blood flow to our brain’s “alarm system,” causing us to reflect on why we are angry (Denson et al., 2009). How, then, can we rid ourselves of our anger? In a Gallup teen survey, boys more than girls reported walking away from the situation or working it off with exercise; girls more often reported talking with a friend, listening to music, or writing (Ray, 2005). Popular books and articles sometimes advise that releasing angry feelings can be better than internalizing them. When irritated, should we lash out at the offender? Are advice columnists right in urging us to teach children to vent their anger? Are “recovery” therapists right in encouraging us to rage at our dead parents, imaginatively curse the boss, or confront our childhood abuser?

Individualist cultures encourage people to vent their rage. Such advice is seldom heard in cultures where people’s identity is centered more on the group. People who keenly sense their interdependence see anger as a threat to group harmony (Markus & Kitayama, 1991). In Tahiti, for instance, people learn to be considerate and gentle. In Japan, from infancy on, angry expressions are less common than in Western cultures, where in recent politics, anger seems all the rage.

The Western vent-your-anger advice presumes that we can achieve emotional release, or catharsis, through aggressive action or fantasy. Experimenters report that sometimes when people retaliate against a provoker, they may indeed calm down (Geen & Quanty, 1977; Hokanson & Edelman, 1966; Verona & Sullivan, 2008). But this tends to be true only if

In short, expressing anger can be temporarily calming if it does not leave us feeling guilty or anxious. But despite this temporary afterglow, catharsis usually fails to cleanse our rage. More often, expressing anger breeds more anger. For one thing, it may provoke further retaliation, causing a minor conflict to escalate into a major confrontation. For another, expressing anger can magnify anger. As behavior feedback research demonstrates, acting angry can make us feel angrier (Flack, 2006; Snodgrass et al., 1986). Anger’s backfire potential appeared in a study of 100 frustrated engineers and technicians just laid off by an aerospace company (Ebbesen et al., 1975). Researchers asked some workers questions that released hostility, such as, “What instances can you think of where the company has not been fair with you?” After expressing their anger, the workers later filled out a questionnaire that assessed their attitudes toward the company. Had the opportunity to “drain off” their hostility reduced it? Quite the contrary. These people expressed more hostility than those who had discussed neutral topics.

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In another study, people who had been provoked were asked to wallop a punching bag while ruminating about the person who had angered them. Later, when given a chance for revenge, they became even more aggressive. “Venting to reduce anger is like using gasoline to put out a fire,” concluded the researcher (Bushman, 2002).

When anger fuels physically or verbally aggressive acts we later regret, it becomes maladaptive. Anger primes prejudice. After the 9/11 terrorist attacks, Americans who responded with anger more than fear displayed intolerance for immigrants and Muslims (DeSteno et al., 2004; Skitka et al., 2004). Angry outbursts that temporarily calm us are dangerous in another way: They may be reinforcing and therefore habit forming. If stressed managers find they can drain off some of their tension by berating an employee, then the next time they feel irritated and tense they may be more likely to explode again. Think about it: The next time you are angry you are likely to repeat whatever relieved (and reinforced) your anger in the past.

What is the best way to manage your anger? Experts offer three suggestions:

Anger is not always wrong. Used wisely, it can communicate strength and competence (Tiedens, 2001). Anger also motivates people to take action and achieve goals (Aarts et al., 2010). Controlled expressions of anger are more adaptive than either hostile outbursts or pent-up angry feelings. When James Averill (1983) asked people to recall or keep careful records of their experiences with anger, they often recalled reacting assertively rather than hurtfully. Their anger frequently led them to talk things over with the offender, thereby lessening the aggravation. Civility means not only keeping silent about trivial irritations but also communicating important ones clearly and assertively. A nonaccusing statement of feeling—perhaps letting one’s housemate know that “I get irritated when the dirty dishes are left for me to clean up”—can help resolve conflicts. Anger that expresses a grievance in ways that promote reconciliation rather than retaliation can benefit a relationship.

What if someone’s behavior really hurts you, and you cannot resolve the conflict? Research commends the age-old response of forgiveness. Without letting the offender off the hook or inviting further harm, forgiveness releases anger and calms the body. To explore the neural effects of forgiveness, German students had their brain scanned while someone thwarted their opportunity to earn money (Strang et al., 2014). Next, the students were asked whether or not they forgave the wrongdoer. Forgiveness increased blood flow to brain regions that help people understand their own emotions and make socially appropriate decisions.

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