9-6 How does sleep loss affect us, and what are the major sleep disorders?

When our body yearns for sleep but does not get it, we begin to feel terrible. Trying to stay awake, we will eventually lose. In the tiredness battle, sleep always wins.

Today, more than ever, our sleep patterns leave us not only sleepy but drained of energy and feelings of well-being. After a succession of 5-hour nights, we accumulate a sleep debt that need not be entirely repaid but cannot be satisfied by one long sleep. “The brain keeps an accurate count of sleep debt for at least two weeks,” reported sleep researcher William Dement (1999, p. 64).

Obviously, then, we need sleep. Sleep commands roughly one-third of our lives—some 25 years, on average. Allowed to sleep unhindered, most adults will sleep at least 9 hours a night (Coren, 1996). With that much sleep, we awake refreshed, sustain better moods, and perform more efficient and accurate work. The U.S. Navy and the National Institutes of Health have demonstrated the benefits of unrestricted sleep in experiments in which volunteers spent 14 hours daily in bed for at least a week. For the first few days, the volunteers averaged 12 hours of sleep a day or more, apparently paying off a sleep debt that averaged 25 to 30 hours. That accomplished, they then settled back to 7.5 to 9 hours nightly and felt energized and happier (Dement, 1999). In one Gallup survey (Mason, 2005), 63 percent of adults who reported getting the sleep they needed also reported being “very satisfied” with their personal life (as did only 36 percent of those needing more sleep). And when 909 working women reported on their daily moods, the researchers were struck by what mattered little (such as money, so long as the person was not battling poverty), and what mattered a lot: less time pressure at work and a good night’s sleep (Kahneman et al., 2004).

College and university students are especially sleep deprived; 69 percent in one national survey reported “feeling tired” or “having little energy” on several or more days in the last two weeks (AP, 2009). For students, less sleep also predicts more conflicts in friendships and romantic relationships (Gordon & Chen, 2014; Tavernier & Willoughby, 2014). Tired triggers crabby. In another survey, 28 percent of high school students acknowledged falling asleep in class at least once a week (National Sleep Foundation, 2006). The going needn’t get boring before students start snoring.

Sleep loss is also a predictor of depression. Researchers who studied 15,500 12-to 18-year-olds found that those who slept 5 or fewer hours a night had a 71 percent higher risk of depression than their peers who slept 8 hours or more (Gangwisch et al., 2010). This link does not appear to reflect an effect of depression on sleep. When children and youth are followed through time, sleep loss predicts depression rather than vice versa (Gregory et al., 2009). Moreover, REM sleep’s processing of emotional experiences helps protect against depression (Walker & van der Helm, 2009). After a good night’s sleep, we often do feel better the next day. And that may help to explain why parentally enforced bedtimes predict less depression, and why pushing back school start times leads to improved adolescent sleep, alertness, and mood (Gregory et al., 2009; Owens et al., 2010; Perkinson-Gloor et al., 2013).

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Sleep-deprived students often function below their peak. And they know it: Four in five teens and three in five 18-to 29-year-olds wish they could get more sleep on weekdays (Mason, 2003, 2005). Yet that teen who staggers glumly out of bed in response to an unwelcome alarm, yawns through morning classes, and feels half-depressed much of the day may be energized at 11:00 p.m. and mindless of the next day’s looming sleepiness (Carskadon, 2002). “Sleep deprivation has consequences—difficulty studying, diminished productivity, tendency to make mistakes, irritability, fatigue,” noted Dement (1999, p. 231). A large sleep debt “makes you stupid.”

It can also make you gain weight. Sleep deprivation

Thus, children and adults who sleep less are fatter than average, and in recent decades people have been sleeping less and weighing more (Shiromani et al., 2012). Moreover, experimental sleep deprivation of adults increases appetite and eating (Nixon et al., 2008; Patel et al., 2006; Spiegel et al., 2004; Van Cauter et al., 2007). So, sleep loss helps explain the common weight gain among sleep-deprived students (Hull et al., 2007).

Sleep also affects our physical health. When infections do set in, we typically sleep more, boosting our immune cells. Sleep deprivation can suppress immune cells that battle viral infections and cancer (Möller-Levet et al., 2013; Motivala & Irwin, 2007). One experiment exposed volunteers to a cold virus. Those who had been averaging less than 7 hours’ sleep a night were three times more likely to develop a cold than were those sleeping 8 or more hours a night (Cohen et al., 2009). Sleep’s protective effect may help explain why people who sleep 7 to 8 hours a night tend to outlive those who are chronically sleep deprived, and why older adults who have no difficulty falling or staying asleep tend to live longer than their sleep-deprived agemates (Dement, 1999; Dew et al., 2003).

Sleep deprivation slows reactions and increases errors on visual attention tasks similar to those involved in screening airport baggage, performing surgery, and reading X-rays (Caldwell, 2012; Lim & Dinges, 2010). Slow responses can also spell disaster for those operating equipment, piloting, or driving. Driver fatigue has contributed to an estimated 20 percent of American traffic accidents (Brody, 2002) and to some 30 percent of Australian highway deaths (Maas, 1999). One two-year study examined the driving accidents of more than 20,000 Virginia 16-to 18-year-olds in two major cities. In one city, the high schools started 75 to 80 minutes later than in the other. The late starters had about 25 percent fewer crashes (Vorona et al., 2011). When sleepy frontal lobes confront an unexpected situation, misfortune often results.

Stanley Coren capitalized on what is, for many North Americans, a semi-annual sleep-manipulation experiment—the “spring forward” to daylight saving time and “fall backward” to standard time. Searching millions of records, Coren found that in both Canada and the United States, accidents increased immediately after the time change that shortens sleep (FIGURE 9.7). Less sleep = more accidents.

Tired people have trouble concentrating, which leads to more “cyberloafing”— frittering away time online. On the Monday after daylight saving time begins, entertainment-related Google searches have been 3.1 percent higher than on the preceding Monday, and 6.4 higher than on the following Monday (Wagner et al., 2012). Another study showed sleep-deprived students (compared to well-rested students) spending more time cyberloafing during a 42-minute video lecture.

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FIGURE 9.8 summarizes the effects of sleep deprivation. But there is good news! Psychologists have discovered a treatment that strengthens memory, increases concentration, boosts mood, moderates hunger, reduces obesity, fortifies the disease-fighting immune system, and lessens the risk of fatal accidents. Even better news: The treatment feels good, it can be self-administered, the supplies are limitless, and it’s free! If you are a typical university-age student, often going to bed near 2:00 a.m. and dragged out of bed six hours later by the dreaded alarm, the treatment is simple: Each night just add 15 minutes to your sleep.

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No matter what their normal need for sleep, 1 in 10 adults, and 1 in 4 older adults, complain of insomnia—persistent problems in either falling or staying asleep (Irwin et al., 2006). The result is tiredness and increased risk of depression (Baglioni et al., 2011). All of us, when anxious or excited, may have trouble sleeping. (And smart phones under the pillow and used as alarm clocks increase the likelihood of disrupted sleep.) From middle age on, awakening occasionally during the night becomes the norm, not something to fret over or treat with medication (Vitiello, 2009). Ironically, insomnia is worsened by fretting about it. In laboratory studies, insomnia complainers do sleep less than others. But they typically overestimate how long it takes them to fall asleep and underestimate how long they actually have slept (Harvey & Tang, 2012). Even if we have been awake only an hour or two, we may think we have had very little sleep because it’s the waking part we remember.

The most common quick fixes for true insomnia—sleeping pills and alcohol—can aggravate the problem, reducing REM sleep and leaving the person with next-day blahs. Such aids can also lead to tolerance—a state in which increasing doses are needed to produce an effect. An ideal sleep aid would mimic the natural chemicals abundant during sleep, reliably producing sound sleep without side effects. Until scientists can supply this magic pill, sleep experts have offered some tips for getting better quality sleep (TABLE 9.1).

Falling asleep is not the problem for people with narcolepsy (from narco, “numbness,” and lepsy, “seizure”), who have sudden attacks of overwhelming sleepiness, usually lasting less than 5 minutes. Narcolepsy attacks can occur at the most inopportune times, perhaps just after taking a terrific swing at a softball or when laughing loudly, shouting angrily, or having sex (Dement, 1978, 1999). In severe cases, the person collapses directly into a brief period of REM sleep, with loss of muscular tension. People with narcolepsy—1 in 2000 of us, estimated the Stanford University Center for Narcolepsy (2002)—must therefore live with extra caution. As a traffic menace, “snoozing is second only to boozing,” says the American Sleep Disorders Association, and those with narcolepsy are especially at risk (Aldrich, 1989).

Researchers have discovered genes that cause narcolepsy in dogs and humans, such as by producing an immune system attack on brain cells that enable alertness (De la Herrán-Arita et al., 2013; Miyagawa et al., 2008). Genes help sculpt the brain, and neuroscientists are searching the brain for narcolepsy-linked abnormalities. One team discovered a relative absence of a hypothalamic neural center that produces orexin (also called hypocretin), an alertness-related neurotransmitter (Taheri et al., 2002; Thannickal et al., 2000). (That discovery has led to the clinical testing of a new sleeping pill that works by blocking orexin’s arousing activity.) Narcolepsy, it is now clear, is a brain disease; it is not just “in your mind.” And this gives hope that narcolepsy might be effectively relieved by a drug that mimics the missing orexin and can sneak through the blood-brain barrier (Fujiki et al., 2003; Siegel, 2000). In the meantime, physicians are prescribing other drugs to relieve narcolepsy’s sleepiness in humans.

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Although 1 in 20 of us have sleep apnea, it was unknown before modern sleep research. Apnea means “with no breath,” and people with this condition intermittently stop breathing during sleep. After an airless minute or so, decreased blood oxygen arouses them enough to snort in air for a few seconds, in a process that repeats hundreds of times each night, depriving them of slow-wave sleep. Apnea sufferers don’t recall these episodes the next day. So, despite feeling fatigued and depressed—and hearing their mate’s complaints about their loud “snoring”—many are unaware of their disorder (Peppard et al., 2006).

Sleep apnea is associated with obesity, and as the number of obese Americans has increased, so has this disorder, particularly among overweight men (Keller, 2007). Apnea-related sleep loss also contributes to obesity. In addition to loud snoring, other warning signs are daytime sleepiness, irritability, and (possibly) high blood pressure, which increases the risk of a stroke or heart attack (Dement, 1999). If one doesn’t mind looking a little goofy in the dark (imagine a snorkeler at a slumber party), the treatment—a masklike device with an air pump that keeps the sleeper’s airway open— can effectively relieve apnea symptoms. By so doing, it can also alleviate the depression symptoms that often accompany sleep apnea (Levine, 2012; Wheaton et al., 2012).

Unlike sleep apnea, night terrors target mostly children, who may sit up or walk around, talk incoherently, experience doubled heart and breathing rates, and appear terrified (Hartmann, 1981). They seldom wake up fully during an episode and recall little or nothing the next morning—at most, a fleeting, frightening image. Night terrors are not nightmares (which, like other dreams, typically occur during early morning REM sleep); night terrors usually occur during the first few hours of NREM-3.

Sleepwalking—another NREM-3 sleep disorder—and sleeptalking are usually childhood disorders and, like narcolepsy, they run in families. (Sleeptalking—usually garbled or nonsensical—can occur during any sleep stage [Mahowald & Ettinger, 1990].) Occasional childhood sleepwalking occurs for about one-third of those with a sleepwalking fraternal twin and half of those with a sleepwalking identical twin. The same is true for sleeptalking (Hublin et al., 1997, 1998). Sleepwalking is usually harmless. After returning to bed on their own or with the help of a family member, few sleepwalkers recall their trip the next morning. About 20 percent of 3-to 12-year-olds have at least one episode of sleepwalking, usually lasting 2 to 10 minutes; some 5 percent have repeated episodes (Giles et al., 1994). Young children, who have the deepest and lengthiest NREM-3 sleep, are the most likely to experience both night terrors and sleepwalking. As we grow older and deep NREM-3 sleep diminishes, so do night terrors and sleepwalking.

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