Chapter 1. Independent-Samples t Test: Are All Texts Created Equal?
1.1 Independent-Samples t Test: Are All Texts Created Equal?
INDEPENDENT-SAMPLES t TEST: ARE ALL TEXTS CREATED EQUAL?
Are All Texts Created Equal?
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You must read each slide, and complete any questions on the slide, in sequence.
Welcome
Are All Texts Created Equal?
Authors:
Kelly M. Goedert, Seton Hall University
Susan A. Nolan, Seton Hall University
Kaylise D. Algrim, Seton Hall University
In this smartphone-dependent era, we spend a lot of time looking at screens. But are we all driven to our screens for the same reasons? One study hypothesized that people text for a variety of different reasons that go beyond simply trying to communicate a message (Schroeder & Sims, 2018). This study looked at what we text each other, and what drives us to text in a particular situation.
Researchers developed a list of texting behaviors, including “texting to tell a joke or make someone laugh,” “texting while in a new place with unfamiliar people,” “texting while exercising,” and “texting to make someone jealous.” Respondents rated how often they texted for each of these reasons on a scale from “never” to “very often.” Based on these ratings, the experimenters identified six primary situations in which people text: (1) to make social connections, (2) to escape the current situation (e.g., while waiting in line, while in a room full of people you don’t know), (3) to distract from a current task (e.g., while studying), (4) to shock (audacious texting), (5) to offer nurturing communication, and (6) while driving. The researchers then analyzed whether there were differences between women and men in their reasons for texting.
EmirMemedovski/E+/Getty Images
Question 1.1
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1.2
Researchers used an independent-samples t test to test for differences between women and men in their reasons for texting. Final scores on the scale are depicted in the table. Higher numbers indicate greater frequency of that form of texting behavior, with a possible range of 2 to 6. The researchers found the following results:
| Reason for texting | Men (N = 179) M (SD) | Women (N = 248) M (SD) | Statistical test and effect size |
|---|---|---|---|
| Social connection | 4.42 (0.60) | 4.64 (0.65) | t(425) = –3.70, p < 0.001, d = 0.35 |
| Escapist | 4.32 (0.69) | 4.64 (0.70) | t(425) = –4.83, p < 0.001, d = 0.46 |
| Distracted | 2.87 (0.59) | 3.04 (0.65) | t(425) = –2.87, p < 0.01, d = 0.27 |
| Audacious | 2.72 (0.62) | 2.63 (0.60) | t(425) = 1.47, p > 0.05, d = 0.15 |
| Nurturing | 4.14 (0.99) | 4.50 (0.99) | t(425) = –3.78, p < 0.001, d = 0.36 |
| Driving | 3.45 (0.79) | 3.62 (0.99) | t(425) = –1.85, p > 0.05, d = 0.19 |
Question 1.2
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Correct! Independent-samples t tests are used when there are two groups, and all participants are in only one of the two groups.
Actually, independent-samples t tests are used when there are two groups, and all participants are in only one of the two groups.
1.3
| Reason for texting | Men (N = 179) M (SD) | Women (N = 248) M (SD) | Statistical test and effect size |
|---|---|---|---|
| Social connection | 4.42 (0.60) | 4.64 (0.65) | t(425) = –3.70, p < 0.001, d = 0.35 |
| Escapist | 4.32 (0.69) | 4.64 (0.70) | t(425) = –4.83, p < 0.001, d = 0.46 |
| Distracted | 2.87 (0.59) | 3.04 (0.65) | t(425) = –2.87, p < 0.01, d = 0.27 |
| Audacious | 2.72 (0.62) | 2.63 (0.60) | t(425) = 1.47, p > 0.05, d = 0.15 |
| Nurturing | 4.14 (0.99) | 4.50 (0.99) | t(425) = –3.78, p < 0.001, d = 0.36 |
| Driving | 3.45 (0.79) | 3.62 (0.99) | t(425) = –1.85, p > 0.05, d = 0.19 |
Question 1.3
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Correct! The p value associated with the comparison of men and women’s social connection texts was p < 0.001, which is less than the typical alpha level of 0.05, and we can see from their means that women sent these kinds of texts more frequently than men did, on average.
Actually, the p value associated with the comparison of men and women’s social connection texts was p < 0.001, which is less than the typical alpha level of 0.05, and we can see from their means that women sent these kinds of texts more frequently than men did, on average.
1.4
| Reason for texting | Men (N = 179) M (SD) | Women (N = 248) M (SD) | Statistical test and effect size |
|---|---|---|---|
| Social connection | 4.42 (0.60) | 4.64 (0.65) | t(425) = –3.70, p < 0.001, d = 0.35 |
| Escapist | 4.32 (0.69) | 4.64 (0.70) | t(425) = –4.83, p < 0.001, d = 0.46 |
| Distracted | 2.87 (0.59) | 3.04 (0.65) | t(425) = –2.87, p < 0.01, d = 0.27 |
| Audacious | 2.72 (0.62) | 2.63 (0.60) | t(425) = 1.47, p > 0.05, d = 0.15 |
| Nurturing | 4.14 (0.99) | 4.50 (0.99) | t(425) = –3.78, p < 0.001, d = 0.36 |
| Driving | 3.45 (0.79) | 3.62 (0.99) | t(425) = –1.85, p > 0.05, d = 0.19 |
Question 1.4
rXA04iCAeGPa5Xe0p/9Lqo78OeAhC+Zkr22nJi9YFbfR9aJ1ze/lnx4Onw6gD+hcp11c0sFHYQMQUd5G+6lAXE0pPGGutHgazU5aSLYG6qnfSrF3kJghJW0G5Nftkzd5866cbJn5XUG0gXLB25w2b7Qev9TjcUPQhAG7uxR6lc/ExTeI4tfPXdXSqwI3jzVJeojCTKhkHXcaV02LkBiAKkGjlMHmgBfSg+GA4moyYPIj3JLmCorrect! The Cohen’s d associated with audacious texts, 0.15, was the smallest effect size.
Actually, the Cohen’s d associated with audacious texts, 0.15, was the smallest effect size.
1.5
| Reason for texting | Men (N = 179) M (SD) | Women (N = 248) M (SD) | Statistical test and effect size |
|---|---|---|---|
| Social connection | 4.42 (0.60) | 4.64 (0.65) | t(425) = –3.70, p < 0.001, d = 0.35 |
| Escapist | 4.32 (0.69) | 4.64 (0.70) | t(425) = –4.83, p < 0.001, d = 0.46 |
| Distracted | 2.87 (0.59) | 3.04 (0.65) | t(425) = –2.87, p < 0.01, d = 0.27 |
| Audacious | 2.72 (0.62) | 2.63 (0.60) | t(425) = 1.47, p > 0.05, d = 0.15 |
| Nurturing | 4.14 (0.99) | 4.50 (0.99) | t(425) = –3.78, p < 0.001, d = 0.36 |
| Driving | 3.45 (0.79) | 3.62 (0.99) | t(425) = –1.85, p > 0.05, d = 0.19 |
Question 1.5
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Correct! The Cohen’s d associated with escapist texting, 0.46, was largest.
Actually, the Cohen’s d associated with escapist texting, 0.46, was largest.
1.6
Question 1.6
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Correct! Gender is the independent variable.
Actually, gender is the independent variable.
1.7
| Reason for texting | Men (N = 179) M (SD) | Women (N = 248) M (SD) | Statistical test and effect size |
|---|---|---|---|
| Social connection | 4.42 (0.60) | 4.64 (0.65) | t(425) = –3.70, p < 0.001, d = 0.35 |
| Escapist | 4.32 (0.69) | 4.64 (0.70) | t(425) = –4.83, p < 0.001, d = 0.46 |
| Distracted | 2.87 (0.59) | 3.04 (0.65) | t(425) = –2.87, p < 0.01, d = 0.27 |
| Audacious | 2.72 (0.62) | 2.63 (0.60) | t(425) = 1.47, p > 0.05, d = 0.15 |
| Nurturing | 4.14 (0.99) | 4.50 (0.99) | t(425) = –3.78, p < 0.001, d = 0.36 |
| Driving | 3.45 (0.79) | 3.62 (0.99) | t(425) = –1.85, p > 0.05, d = 0.19 |
Question 1.7
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! All four of these reasons had p values less than the typical alpha level of 0.05. The other two reasons, audacious and driving, did not.
Actually, social connection, escapist, distracted, and nurturing communication were all statistically significant reasons, in that all had p values less than the typical alpha level of 0.05. The other two reasons, audacious and driving, did not.
1.8
The bottom line: We’re not short of reasons for texting. They just may not all be the same reasons.
The Lighthouse Film Co, Inc./Corbis/Getty Images
REFERENCES
Schroeder, B. L., & Sims, V. K. (2018). Texting as a multidimensional behavior: Individual differences and measurement of texting behaviors. Psychology of Popular Media Culture, 7, 361–383. https://doi.org/10.1037/ppm0000148