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Test yourself repeatedly throughout your studies. This will not only help you figure out what you know and don’t know; the testing itself will help you learn and remember the information more effectively thanks to the testing effect.
1. Learning is defined as “the process of acquiring, through experience, new and relatively enduring _____ or _____.”
information; behaviors
2. Two forms of associative learning are classical conditioning, in which we associate _____, and operant conditioning, in which we associate _____.
two or more responses; a response and consequence
two or more stimuli; two or more responses
two or more stimuli; a response and consequence
two or more responses; two or more stimuli
c
3. In Pavlov’s experiments, the tone started as a neutral stimulus, and then became a(n) _____ stimulus.
conditioned
4. Dogs have been taught to salivate to a circle but not to a square. This process is an example of _____.
discrimination
5. After Watson and Rayner classically conditioned Little Albert to fear a white rat, the child later showed fear in response to a rabbit, a dog, and a sealskin coat. This illustrates
extinction.
generalization.
spontaneous recovery.
discrimination between two stimuli.
b
6. “Sex sells!” is a common saying in advertising. Using classical conditioning terms, explain how sexual images in advertisements can condition your response to a product.
A sexual image is a US that triggers a UR of interest or arousal. Before the advertisement pairs a product with a sexual image, the product is an NS. Over time the product can become a CS that triggers the CR of interest or arousal.
7. Thorndike’s law of effect was the basis for_____ ’s work on operant conditioning and behavior control.
Skinner’s
8. One way to change behavior is to reward natural behaviors in small steps, as they get closer and closer to a desired behavior. This process is called _____.
shaping
9. Your dog is barking so loudly that it’s making your ears ring. You clap your hands, the dog stops barking, your ears stop ringing, and you think to yourself, “I’ll have to do that when he barks again.” The end of the barking was for you a
positive reinforcer.
negative reinforcer.
positive punishment.
negative punishment.
b
10. How could your psychology instructor use negative reinforcement to encourage you to pay attention during class?
Your instructor could reinforce your attentive behavior by taking away something you dislike. For example, your instructor could offer to shorten the length of an assigned paper or replace lecture time with an in-
11. Reinforcing a desired response only some of the times it occurs is called _____ reinforcement.
partial
12. A restaurant is running a special deal. After you buy four meals at full price, your fifth meal will be free. This is an example of a _____ schedule of reinforcement.
fixed-
variable-
fixed-
variable-
a
13. The partial reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after unpredictable time periods is a _____ - _____ schedule.
variable-
14. An old saying notes that “a burnt child dreads the fire.” In operant conditioning, the burning would be an example of a
primary reinforcer.
negative reinforcer.
punisher.
positive reinforcer.
c
15. Which research showed that conditioning can occur even when the unconditioned stimulus (US) does not immediately follow the neutral stimulus (NS)?
The Little Albert experiment
Pavlov’s experiments with dogs
Watson’s behaviorism studies
Garcia and Koelling’s taste-
d
16. Taste-
Pavlov’s demonstration of generalization.
Darwin’s principle that natural selection favors traits that aid survival.
Watson’s belief that psychologists should study observable behavior, not mentalistic concepts.
the early behaviorists’ view that any organism can be conditioned to any stimulus.
b
17. Evidence that cognitive processes play an important role in learning comes in part from studies in which rats running a maze develop a _____ _____ of the maze.
mental map
18. Rats that explored a maze without any reward were later able to run the maze as well as other rats that had received food rewards for running the maze. The rats that had learned without reinforcement demonstrated __________ __________.
latent learning
19. Children learn many social behaviors by imitating parents and other models. This type of learning is called __________ __________.
observational learning
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20. According to Bandura, we learn by watching models because we experience _____ reinforcement or _____ punishment.
vicarious; vicarious
21. Parents are most effective in getting their children to imitate them if
their words and actions are consistent.
they have outgoing personalities.
one parent works and the other stays home to care for the children.
they carefully explain why a behavior is acceptable in adults but not in children.
a
22. Some scientists believe that the brain has _____ neurons that enable observation and imitation.
mirror
23. Most experts agree that repeated viewing of TV violence
makes all viewers significantly more aggressive.
has little effect on viewers.
is a risk factor for viewers’ increased aggression.
makes viewers angry and frustrated.
c
Find answers to these questions in Appendix E, in the back of the book.