I-1
boldface indicates a definition; italics indicates a figure.
A
Abiotic environment, 611, 611
ABO blood groups, inheritance of, 295, 295–297, 297
Acacia trees, ants and, 637–638
Acetaldehyde, 168
Acid precipitation, 666–668, 667, 668
Acids, 51, 51–53, 52, 53. See also Amino acids; Nucleic acids, Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA); Ribonucleic acid (RNA); Valproic acid
in stomach, 52, 53–54
Acoustical signals, 395
Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS), 561. See also HIV/AIDS
Activation energy, 72
Activators, 73, 74
Active sites of enzymes, 72, 72
Active transport, 106, 106
Adaptation, 339
behavioral, 366, 366–368, 367
natural selection and, 339–341, 340
production by predation, 631–634, 632–634
Adaptive radiations, 428, 428–429, 429
Additive effects, 297
Adenosine triphosphate (ATP), 141, 141, 141–142, 142
active transport and, 106
as fuel, 116
synthesis in electron transport chain, 162–164, 162–164
Adults, 468
insect, 467, 468
African elephants, 412
Age pyramids, 595–596, 596, 597
Aging, 589
in Hutchinson-Gilford progeria syndrome, 233
longevity and, 589–590, 592–593, 593
natural selection and, 590–591, 591
slowing down process of, 593–594, 594
Agkistrodon rhodostoma, 650
Agriculture
biotechnology in, 208, 208–212
crop productivity and, 577–578, 578
faster growth and bigger bodies and, 211–212, 212
genetically modified crops and, 209, 209–210, 210
insect and herbicide resistance and, 210–211, 211
plant productivity and, 642
slash-and-burn, 672
AIDS. See Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS); HIV/AIDS
Airborne, 3
Alarm calling, 633
Alcohol. See Ethanol
Algae
brown, 555
green, 497, 497
Alleles, 184, 184, 279
changing frequencies of, evolution and, 325–326, 326, 328
determining, 289–290, 290
multiple allelism and, 295, 295–297, 297
Allopatric speciation, 416–417, 417, 418
Almas caviar, 87–88, 88
Altitude, temperatures and, 616–617
Altruistic behaviors, 373, 373, 373–379
kin selection and, 374–377, 375, 376, 378
reciprocal altruism and, 374, 377–378, 378, 379
American mink, 631
Amino acids, 68, 68
essential, 69, 69
in polypeptide chains, 70
Amino groups, 68, 68
Amish people, founder effect and, 329, 330
Amniocentesis, 265–266, 266
Amniotes, 476, 477
Amniotic eggs, evolution of, 475, 475
Amphibians, 476, 476, 476–477
Amphiuma means, DNA of, 184
Analogous traits, 425
Anaphase, 245
in meiosis, 253, 254, 254, 255
in mitosis, 245–246, 247
Anatomy, comparative, common evolutionary origins revealed by, 353, 353–354, 354
Ancrod, 650
Anecdotal observations, 27, 28
Angiosperms, 504, 508–513, 509
double fertilization and, 512, 512–513, 513
pollination of, 510, 510–511, 511
Animals, 446. See also specific animals
characteristics defining, 446, 446–447
invertebrate. See Invertebrates
key distinctions dividing, 448–449, 449, 450, 451
language in, 396–397
relationships with plants, 514–517
vertebrate. See Vertebrates
Annelids, 456, 458, 458–459
Antacids, digestion and food allergies and, 53–54
Antarctic ice cap, global warming and, 669, 670
Antarctic ozone hole, 675, 675
Antechinus, tradeoff between reproduction and survival in, 584
Anthers, 508, 509
Antibiotic resistance, 356, 357, 548, 548–549, 549
Antibiotics, from bacteria, 435
Ants
acacia trees and, 637–638
sex determination in, 262, 262
Anury, inheritance of, 291–292, 292
Apoptosis, 243
Aquaporins, 104
Arachnids, 464, 464
Archaea, 89, 433, 534, 550–552
contrasted with bacteria, 550, 550
in extreme environments, 436, 436
habitats of, 551, 551–552, 552
Archaeopteryx, 478, 479
Arctic ground squirrels, mate selection in, 386–387
Arctic ice cap, global warming and, 670, 670
Arthritis of the knee, arthroscopic surgery for, 19–20
Arthropods, 463, 463–465, 464
Arthroscopic surgery, for arthritis of the knee, 19–20
Artificial selection, 341
Ascomycota, 519, 519
Asexual reproduction, 235, 250
advantages of, 259, 259
bacterial, 539–540, 540, 541
by binary fission, 233, 234–235, 235, 540, 540
disadvantages of, 259
Asian flu, 560
Aspirin, alcohol metabolism and, 224
Atacama desert, 615–616
Atlantic salmon, 211
Atomic mass, 41
Atomic number, 41, 41–42
Atoms, 40, 40–43, 41
charged, as ions, 44, 44
electrons of. See Electrons
radioactive, 42
stability of, 43, 43–44
ATP. See Adenosine triphosphate (ATP)
Australian desert, 616
Australian social spider, altruistic behavior in, 373, 373
Australopithecines, 482, 483
Autism
genes responsible for, 298
MMR vaccine and, 28, 28–29
Avian influenza virus, 561
B
Baby boom, 595, 597
Bacilli, 538, 538
Bacillus thuringiensis, pesticides containing, 210–211, 211
Background extinctions, 430, 431, 658–659
Bacteria, 89, 433, 534, 538–549
antibiotic resistance of, 356, 357, 548, 548–549, 549
beneficial, 543, 543–544
biodiversity of, 434–435, 435
classification and structure of, 538, 538
contrasted with archaea, 550, 550
food contamination by, 564
Gram-positive and Gram-negative, 539
growth and reproduction of, 539–541, 540, 541
habitats of, 544–545
identification of, 539, 539
metabolic diversity among, 541–542, 542
methane consumption by, 652–653
nitrogen-fixing, 625–626
pathogenic, 545–547, 546
population growth of, 259, 259
Baldness, male-pattern, 300–301
Ball-and-stick models, 45
Base pairs, 180
Bases (in nucleic acids), 75–76, 180, 180, 181
Bases (solutions), 51, 51–53, 52, 53
Basidiomycota, 519, 519
Beech trees, tradeoff between reproduction and growth and, 584, 585
Bees
pollination by, 510
sex determination in, 262, 262
waggle dance of, 395–396, 396
Behavior, 367
Behavioral defenses, 633, 633
Behavioral Ecology, 22, 22
Behavioral traits, evolution of, 364–404
adaptive value of behavior and, 366, 366–368, 367
altruistic behaviors and, 373, 373–379
communication and, 395–397
complex behaviors and, 371, 371–372
environmental mismatches and, 379–380, 380
group selection and, 381, 381
innate behaviors and, 368, 368–369
kin selection and, 374–377, 375, 376, 378
learned behaviors and, 369, 369–370
reproductive investment and, 382–394
Belding’s ground squirrels, alarm calls of, 374–375, 375, 376
Beta-blockers, 98–99, 99
Bias, in experiments, 22, 22–23
Bilateral symmetry, 448, 448–449
Binary fission, 233, 234, 234–235, 235, 540, 540
Biodiversity, 404–443, 406, 650–657, 651
among archaea, 436, 436
among bacteria, 434–435, 435
among eukarya, 437, 437
of animals, 444–491. See also Animals; Invertebrates; Vertebrates
distribution of, 655–657, 655–657
evolutionary trees and, 420–425
macroevolution and, 426–431
of microbes, 534, 534–535
most valuable, protecting, 676, 676–677, 677
ocean ice and coastal estuary flooding and, 670
origin of life on earth and, 406–410
racial differences and, 438
reduction by deforestation, 672
reduction by extinction. See Extinctions
scales of, 654, 654–655
species and. See Species
strategies for preserving, 678, 678–679, 679
three domains of life and, 432–434, 433, 434
value of, 650–652, 650–652
Biodiversity hotspots, 656, 656–657, 657
Biofuels, 136, 136, 136–137
Biogeography, 351, 351, 351–352, 352
Biological literacy, 4, 4, 4–5
Biological species concept, 411, 412, 414–416, 415
Biology, 3, 3–4
conservation, 654, 654–655
molecular, common genetic sequences revealed by, 355, 355
unifying themes in, 31
Biomass, 622
Biomes, 611–613, 612, 612, 613
Biotechnology, 204, 204–207, 204–220
agricultural applications of, 208, 208–212
cloning and, 219, 219–220, 220
medical applications of, 215–218, 216
safety of genetically modified foods and, 212–214, 213
Biotic environment, 610, 611
Bipedalism, 482
Bird flu, 561
Birds, 477–478, 477–479. See also specific birds
parental investment in, 391, 392
reproductive output in, 383–384, 384
reptiles compared with, 478, 478
sex determination in, 262, 262
sexual dimorphism in, 393, 393
Birth weight, stabilizing selection and, 343, 343–344
Bison, 641
Bivalve mollusks, 459, 460, 460
I-2
Black widow spiders, 259, 259, 464
mate guarding in, 389, 389
Blind experimental design, 18
Blood
pH of, 52–53, 53
sharing of, by vampire bats, 377–378, 378
Blood doping, 216
Blood groups, inheritance of, 295, 295–297, 297
Blood sugar, 56, 56–57
Bluegill sunfish, paternity uncertainty in, 389–390
Body plan, innovations in, 448, 449
Body size, sexual dimorphism in, 394
Bond energy, 45
Bonds
covalent, 45, 45–46, 47
double, 46
electrons and, 43, 43–44, 44
hydrogen, 46–47, 47
ionic, 45, 46, 47
peptide, 70
Bonobos, 661, 661
Bornean orangutan, 411
Bottleneck, 329, 330, 331
Boyer, Herbert, 215
BRAC genes, breast cancer and, 197
Breast cancer, BRAC genes and, 197
Bribery, pollinators and, 510, 510–511
Bristlecone pine trees, longevity of, 589
Brown algae, 555
Brown recluse spider, 464
Brown tree snake, 664–665, 665
Bryophytes, 498, 498–500, 499, 500
Buffers, 52, 52–53, 53
Buffon, Georges, 319, 320
Bush crickets, male-female differences in selectiveness about sexual partners of, 384, 384–385
C
Cacao trees, fungi and, 524–525
California condor, 679
Calment, Jeanne Louise, 589
Calvin cycle, 144, 144, 152, 152, 152–153, 153
CAM photosynthesis, 155, 155–156
Camouflage, 632, 633
Cancer, 246
of breast, BRAC genes and, 197
cell division and, 246–249, 248, 249
gap junctions and, 110–111
metastasis of, 248, 248
of skin, sunscreen to prevent, 200–202
telomeres and, 233
treatment of, 248–249, 249
vitamin C and, 21, 25
Cane toad, 666, 666
Capsids, 557
Capsule, 539
Captive breeding programs, 679
Carbohydrates, 55, 55, 55–60
complex, 58, 58–59, 59
as energy source, 56, 56–59, 169, 169
indigestible, 59, 59–60, 60
simple, 55–56
Carbo-loading, 57, 57
Carbon
bonding of, 46
formation of molecules containing, 406, 407, 407
need to reduce emissions of, 671
Carbon cycle, 624, 624–625
Carbon dioxide, as greenhouse gas, 670
Carbon-13 (13C), 42
Carbon-14 (14C), 42
Carboxyl groups, 68, 68
Cardiovascular disease, cholesterol and, 107–108, 108
Carnivores, 620, 621
Carotenoids, 146
Carpels, 508, 509
Carriers, 291, 291–292
Carrying capacity (K), 576
for human population, 599–601, 599–601
Cartilaginous fishes, 473, 474
Catharanthus roseus, 650
CD markers, 100–101, 101
Cell cycle, 236
eukaryotic, 236, 236–238, 237
Cell division, 232–241. See also Meiosis; Mitosis
cancer and, 246–249, 248, 249
chromosome replication and, 238–241, 239, 240
chromosome structure and, 234, 234–235, 235
eukaryotic cell cycle and, 236, 236–238, 237
telomeres and, 232–233, 233
Cell membrane. See Plasma membrane
Cell theory, 15, 87, 87
Cell wall, 90, 124, 124–125, 127
Cell-cycle control system, 237, 237
Cells, 84–133, 86
active transport and, 106, 106
adaptation to environment, 117–118
bulk transport of particles and, 107–109, 107–109
cell theory and, 87, 87
connections between, 110–111, 111
diploid, 250, 251
eukaryotic. See Eukaryotic cells
first, formation of, 408–409, 409
haploid, 250, 251
osmosis and, 104, 104–105, 105
passive transport and, 102, 102–103, 103
plasma membrane bordering. See Plasma membrane
prokaryotic, 89, 89–90, 234, 234, 432
replacement of, 242, 242
reproductive. See Eggs; Gametes; Sperm
somatic, 236
Cellular respiration, 137, 137, 157, 157–166, 158
ATP synthesis and, 162–164, 162–164
glycolysis in, 158, 158–159
jet lag and, 165–166
Krebs cycle and, 160, 160–162, 161
Cellulose, 59, 59, 59–60, 60
Centipedes, 464
Central vacuole, 125
Centrioles, 245
Centromeres, 237, 244, 245
Cephalopods, 459, 460, 460–461, 461
CFCs. See Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)
C4 photosynthesis, 154, 154–155, 155
Chaparral, 612
Character displacement, 630, 630, 630–631
Charnier, Madeline, 263
Checkpoints, 237, 237, 237–238
Cheetahs, bottleneck effect and, 329, 330, 331
Chelicerates, 464, 464
Chemical defenses, of plants, 516, 516, 632, 632
Chemical energy, 138, 138, 138–139
Chemical reactions
facilitation by enzymes, 72, 72
regulation by enzymes, 73, 73–74, 74
Chemical signals, 395
Chemical-induced mutations, 200
Chemolithotrophs, 541, 541–542, 542
Chemoorganotrophs, 541, 542
Chemotherapy, 248–249, 249
Chiasmata, 257, 257
Chickens, naked, 212, 214
Child abuse, kin selection and, 377
Chimpanzees, similarity of human and chimpanzee genes and, 481–482
Chinook salmon, 211
Chitin, 59, 59
Chlamydia, 547
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), 674, 674, 675, 675–676
Chlorophyll, 145
light absorption by, 146–147, 147
photons and, 148, 148–149
Chlorophyll a, 146, 147, 147, 149–150
Chlorophyll b, 146, 147, 147
Chloroplasts, 92, 126, 126, 126–127, 127, 145, 145
Chocolate, fungi and, 524–525
Cholera, 545, 546
Cholesterol, 65, 65, 97
hypercholesterolemia and, 107–108, 108
Chordata, 470, 471, 472. See also Vertebrates
Chorionic villus sampling (CVS), 266
Chromatids, 244, 245
Chromatin, 113, 113, 234
Chromosomal aberrations, 198, 199
Chromosomes, 183, 234
eukaryotic, 234, 234
incorrect numbers of, 265–269
prokaryotic, 234, 234
replication of, 234–235, 235, 238–241, 239, 240, 244, 252, 252–253, 254
sex. See Sex chromosomes
Chytridiomycota, 519
Cilia, 115, 115
Cinderella syndrome, 377
Clams, 460, 460
Class performance, access to textbook and, 25–27, 26
Classes, 413, 414
Clever Hans (horse), 18, 18
Climate change. See also Global warming; Rainfall; Weather
greenhouse gases and, 669, 669–671, 670
Climax communities, 640
Clone libraries, 207, 207
Clones, 206
Cloning, 206, 206–207, 219, 219–220, 220
Clorox Corporation, 545
Cnidarians, 454, 454–456, 455
Cnidocytes, 454, 455
Cocci, 538, 538
Codes, 182
Codominance, 294, 294
Codon table, 191, 191, 193
Codons, 191
Coevolution, 629, 629, 629–630
Cohen, Stanley, 215
Cohesiveness, of water, 48, 48–49, 49
Coho salmon, disruptive selection and, 344, 344
Cohorts, 595
Cold stress, fat cells and, 117–118
Coleochaetes, 497, 497
Colonization, adaptive radiations and, 429, 429
Colonizers, 639
Color blindness, 299–300, 300
Coloration, sexual dimorphism in, 394
Commensalism, 636, 636, 637
Common cold, 559
echinacea and, 8, 9, 10, 11, 11–12, 13–14
Communication, 395, 395–397
honest signals in, 397, 397
language and, 396, 396
signal types in, 395–396, 396
Communities, 573, 610, 611
change over time, 639–640, 640
climax, 640
competition and, 630, 630–631, 631
keystone species in, 641, 641
niches in, 628, 628–629
Comparative anatomy, common evolutionary origins revealed by, 353, 353–354, 354
Competitive exclusion, 630, 630
Competitive inhibitors, 73
Competitors, 640
Complementarity, 238, 238–239, 239
Complete metamorphosis, 467, 468
Complex carbohydrates, 58, 58, 58–59
Compounds
bonds in, 45–47
ionic, 45, 46
Concentration gradients, 102
Condensation, 244
Cones, of gymnosperms, 504, 506
Coniferous forests, 612
Conifers, 507, 507
Conjugation, 540, 541
Conservation, 674–679
prioritizing species to preserve, 676, 676–677, 677
reversing ozone zone depletion and, 674, 674–676, 675
strategies for preserving biodiversity and, 678, 678–679, 679
Conservation biology, 654, 654, 654–655
Consumer product labeling, 27–28
Consumers, energy flows from producers to, 620–622, 621
Control group, 16
Convergent evolution, 354, 354, 424, 424, 424–425, 425
Copulatory plugs, 388
Coral bleaching, 455, 455
Coral reefs, 455, 613, 613, 656–657, 657
Corals, 454, 454–455, 455
Corn, genetically modified, 210, 210
Correlation, positive, 27
Courtship rituals, 386, 387
Covalent bonds, 45, 45, 45–46, 47
Cows, selection for milk production ability, 342, 342–343
Crab lice, 547
Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease, 558
Crick, Francis, 180, 180, 238
Critical experiments, 11, 11–13, 12
Crops. See Agriculture
Crosses, 282
Crossing over, 253, 257, 257
Crustaceans, 464, 464–465
C3 photosynthesis, 154
Cultural services, 651, 652
Cuticle, 498
Cuvier, Georges, 319, 320
CVS. See Chorionic villus sampling (CVS)
Cyanobacteria, 542
Cycads, 505
Cystic fibrosis, 98, 98
Cytokinesis, 237, 246, 254, 255
Cytoplasm, 90, 114
Cytoskeleton, 114, 114, 114–115, 115, 127
Cytosol, 90
D
Dannon yogurt, 3
Darwin, Charles
on adaptation, 447
I-3
on altruistic behaviors, 373–374
on classification of species, 420–421
early life of, 321
influences on thought of, 320, 321, 323
monk parakeets and, 664
natural selection and, 325–326
observations on Galápagos Islands, 321–322, 322
The Origin of Species and. See The Origin of Species (Darwin)
on pace of evolution, 428
society inhabited by, 319–320
theory of evolution of, 323, 323–324, 324, 348
voyage on the Beagle, 321, 321–322
“warm little pond” of, 406, 407, 409
Darwin, Erasmus, 320
Data points, 24, 24
Daughter cells, 235, 235, 243, 244
Decomposers, 521, 621, 621, 621–622
Deep oceans, 657
Deforestation
reversibility of, 662
of tropical rain forests, 661, 661, 671–673, 671–673
Demographic transitions, 597, 597–598, 598
Denaturation of proteins, 71, 71
Density-dependent factors, 576
Density-independent factors, 576, 576–577
Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), 75, 180
bacterial, 540
complementarity of, 238–239, 239
eukaryotic, 234, 234
evolutionary trees based on, 423, 423–424
function of, 179
genes and, 182–184, 182–184
genetic ancestry testing and, 486
genetic sequences linking all life forms and, 355, 355
as individual identifier, 178, 178–179, 179
mitochondrial, 117
non-coding (junk), 184–185, 185, 186
in nucleus, 112
prokaryotic, 234, 234
proofreading and repair of, 240
replication of, 238–241, 239, 240
structure of, 76, 76–77, 179–181, 180, 181, 238–239, 239
telomeres and, 232–233, 233
transcription and, 187, 187, 188–190, 189
viral, 557, 558, 558
Dependent variables, 24, 24, 24
Deserts, 612, 613
formation of, 615, 615–616
rain shadows and, 616
Desmosomes, 110, 111
Detrivores, 621, 621, 621–622
Deuterostomes, 449
Diabetes
gestational, 376, 376–377
type 1, treatment of, 215
Diaea ergandros, altruistic behavior in, 373, 373
Diatoms, 555, 555
Diet
complete, 169, 169
lipids in, 62, 62–64, 64–65
proteins in, 68–69, 69
Dietary fiber, 60, 60
Differential reproductive success, 333
natural selection and, 333, 333–334
Diffusion, 102, 102, 102–103, 103
Digestion, antacids and, 53–54
Dihybrid cross, 305
Dihybrid traits, 304–305, 305, 305
Dinosaurs, extinction of, 430
Dipeptides, 90
Diploid cells, 250, 251
in bryophytes, 499, 499, 500
in ferns, 501, 502, 502
of fungi, 520, 520
Directional selection, 342, 342, 342–343, 343, 344–346
Disaccharides, 58, 58–59
Discontinuous replication, 241
Diseases and genetic disorders
anury, 291–292, 292
arthritis, 19–20
autism, 28, 28–29, 298
bacterial, 435, 545–547, 546
cardiovascular, cholesterol and, 107–108, 108
cholera, 545, 546
color blindness, 299–300, 300
common cold, 8, 9, 10, 11, 11–12, 13–14, 559
Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease, 558
cystic fibrosis, 98, 98
Down syndrome, 265–267, 265–267
faulty membranes causing, 98, 98–99, 99
fish odor syndrome, 278, 279, 279
gene therapy for, 217–218
genital herpes, 547, 559
gestational diabetes, 376, 376–377
global climate change and, 671
Hutchinson-Gilford progeria syndrome, 233
influenza, 559, 559–561, 561
Klinefelter syndrome, 268, 268
lactose intolerance, 74
mad cow disease, 558
malaria, 556, 556
mutations and, 203, 203
oral herpes, 559
parasitic, 556, 556
phenylketonuria, 302, 302
polydactyly, 329, 330
rabies, 635, 635–636
severe acute respiratory syndrome, 559, 560
sexually transmitted, 546–547, 547. See also HIV/AIDS
sickle-cell disease, 298, 299
stomach ulcers, 16–18, 17
Tay-Sachs disease, 119, 203, 217, 217, 289, 289
transport protein defects and, 103
treatment of, biotechnology and, 215–218, 216
Turner syndrome, 268, 268
type 1 diabetes, 215
viral, 559, 559–560. See also specific disorders
XXX females, 268, 269
XXY males, 268, 268–269
Dispersers, 639, 640
Disruptive selection, 344, 344
DNA. See Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
DNA bases, 75, 75–76
DNA fingerprinting, 220–223, 221, 222
DNA helicase, 239
DNA polymerase, 240
DNA probes, 207, 207, 207–208
DNA synthesis phase, 237
DNA viruses, 559
Dodder, 495, 495
Dolly (sheep), 219
Dolomedes triton, 48
Domains, 413, 414
Dominant traits, 284, 284
codominance and, 294, 294
incomplete dominance and, 293–294, 294
Dorsal hollow nerve cord, 470, 471
Double bonds, 46
Double fertilization, 512, 512, 512–513, 513
Double helix, 76, 76, 180, 181
Double-blind experimental design, 18
Douglas firs, 507
Down, John Langdon, 266
Down syndrome, 265–267, 265–267
DRD4 gene, 308
Drosophila pseudoobscura, 417
Drugs
altering cell membrane functioning, 98–99, 99
antibiotic, 435. See also Antibiotic resistance
beta-blockers, 98–99, 99
from plants, 516
smooth endoplasmic reticulum and tolerance to, 122
sources of, 650, 650
valproic acid with anti-HIV drugs, 21, 21
E
Earthworms, 458, 458–459
Echidnas, 480, 480
Echinacea, common cold and, 8, 9, 10, 11–12, 13–14
Echinoderms, 468–469, 469
Ecological footprint, 600
Ecology, 572, 572–573, 573
population perspective in, 573–574, 574. See also Population ecology
Ecosystem services, 651, 652
Ecosystems, 573, 610, 610–613
biomes, 611–613, 612, 613
chemical cycles in, 624–627, 624–627
elements of, 610–611, 611
energy flows in, 620–622, 621
energy pyramids and, 622–623, 623
reversibility of disturbances to, 662–663, 663
Ectoparasites, 634, 635
Ectotherms, 478
Eggs. See also Gametes
amniotic, evolution of, 475, 475
as cells, 87
production in meiosis, 255–256, 256
El Niño, 618, 618–619, 619
Electromagnetic spectrum, 146, 146
Electron shells, 43, 43–44
Electron transport chain, 150, 151
Electrons, 41
bonding and, 43, 43–44, 44
Elements, 40, 40
in human body, 42, 43
number of protons in, 41, 41–42, 42
Elephant seals
polygamy among, 391, 391
sexual dimorphism in, 393, 393
Embryology, common evolutionary origins revealed by, 352–353, 353
Empirical knowledge, 6
Endangered species, 660, 677
Endangered Species Act (ESA), 677
Endemic species, 657
Endocytosis, 107, 107–108, 108
Endomembrane system, 120, 120, 120–122, 121
Endoparasites, 634, 635
Endosperm, 503
Endosymbiosis theory, 91, 91–93, 93
Endotherms, 478
Energy, 134–175, 137
activation, 72
ATP and. See Adenosine triphosphate (ATP)
bond, 45
from carbohydrates, 56, 56–59, 169, 169
cellular respiration and. See Cellular respiration
chemical, 138, 138–139
conversion of, 139, 139–140, 140
from fats, 169, 169
fuel sources for, 169, 169
kinetic, 138, 138
light. See Light energy
from lipids, 62, 63
photosynthesis and. See Photosynthesis
potential, 138, 138
production without oxygen, 167, 167–168, 168
from proteins, 169, 169
requirement for, 136, 136–137, 137
Energy flows, from producers to consumers, 620–622, 621
Energy pyramids, 622, 622–623, 623
Environment
abiotic, 611, 611
adaptation to, through natural selection, 338–347
biotic, 610, 611
cellular adaptation to, 117–118
extreme, archaea living in, 436, 436
global warming and. See Global warming
human activities and. See Human activities
interaction with genes, 302, 302–303, 303
mismatched, behaviors and, 379–380, 380
sex determination in turtles and, 263–264
Environmental disturbance, species richness and, 656, 656
Environmental intervention, unintended consequences of, 637–638
Enzymatic proteins, 97
Enzymes, 68, 72–74
DNA replication and, 239, 240
facilitation of chemical reactions by, 72, 72
lysosomes and, 119
membrane, 97, 97
non-functioning, 74, 74
regulation of reactions by, 73, 73–74, 74
restriction, 205, 205
Epibatidine, 650
Epipedobates tricolor, 650
EPO. See Erythropoietin (EPO)
Equus quagga, 415
Erie, Lake, 627
Erosion, reduction by non-vascular plants, 500, 500
Erwin, Terry, 465–466
Erythropoietin (EPO), production of, 216
ESA. See Endangered Species Act (ESA)
Escaping, 633, 633
Escherichia coli, 435, 538
generation time of, 539
Essay on the Principle of Population (Malthus), 323
Essential amino acids, 69, 69
Estrogen, 65–66, 66
Estuaries, 613, 613
Ethanol, 168
aspirin and, 224
response to, genetics and, 202–203, 203
Eucritta melanolimnetes, 413
Eukarya, 433, 437, 437. See also Animals; Invertebrates; Vertebrates
Eukaryotes, 89, 534
cell division in, 233
first, 553, 553–554
gene control in, 196, 196
I-4
Eukaryotic cells, 89, 90–93, 112–127, 432
adaptation to environment, 117–118
cell cycle of, 236, 236–238, 237
cell wall of, 124, 124–125
chloroplasts of, 126, 126–127, 127
chromosomes of, 234, 234
cytoplasm of, 114
cytoskeleton of, 114, 114–115, 115
distinguishing features of, 90, 91
endomembrane system of, 120, 120–122, 121
endosymbiosis and, 91–93, 93
Golgi apparatus of, 122–123, 123
invagination and, 93, 93
lysosomes of, 118–119, 119
mitochondria of, 115–117, 116
nucleus of, 112, 112–113, 113
structure of, 90–91, 90–92
vacuoles of, 125, 125–126
European mink, 631
Eutrophication, 626, 626–627
Evolution, 314–404, 317
adaptive radiations and, 429, 429
of amniotic egg, 475, 475
of behavior. See Behavioral traits, evolution of
changing allele frequencies and, 325–326, 326
common genetic sequences linking all life forms and, 355, 355
comparative anatomy and embryology and, 352–354, 353, 354
convergent, 354, 354, 424, 424–425, 425
Darwin’s theory of, 323, 323–324, 324, 348
of eukaryotes, 91–93, 93
evidence for, 348–357
of fins, 473, 473
fossil record of, 348–350, 349, 350
genetic drift and, 328–331, 329, 330
of horses, 349–350, 350
of humans, 481, 481–485, 482, 484
of jaws, 473, 474
of limbs, 475, 475
of lungs, 475, 475
macro. See Macroevolution
mechanisms of, 325–337
micro, 426–427, 427
migration and, 331, 331
misconceptions about, 358
movement from water to land and, 474–475, 475
multigenerational experiments and observations and, 356, 356–357, 357
mutation and, 326–328, 327
natural selection and. See Natural selection
ongoing nature of, 316, 316–318, 318
power of, 31
of primates, 481, 481–483, 482
recessive traits and, 335–337, 336
species distributions and, 351, 351–352, 352
species richness and, 656, 656
theory of, by natural selection, 15
of vertebrae, 475, 475
Evolutionary trees, 420, 420–425
ancestor-descendent relationships shown by, 421–424, 422
constructing by comparing similarities and differences among organisms, 422–424, 423
convergent evolution and, 424, 424–425, 425
DNA-based, 423, 423–424
nodes on, 421–422
Exocytosis, 107, 108–109, 109
Exoskeleton, 463
Exotic species, 664
introduction of, 661, 664–666, 664–666, 680
Experimental group, 16
Experiments, 16–22
bias in, 22, 22–23
critical, 11–13, 12
designing, 16–19
elements common to, 16
multigeneration, 356, 356–357, 357
reproducible and repeatable, 21, 21–22
Exponential growth, 575
Extinctions, 430, 658–661
background, 430, 431, 658–659
causes of, 658, 658–660, 659
current, 660–661, 661
mass, 429, 429, 430, 430–431, 431, 658–659
Extremophiles, 551
Eyewitness identification
DNA analysis and, 178, 178–179, 179
reliability of, 8, 8, 10, 11, 13
F
Facilitated diffusion, 103, 103
Fake fats, 65
Familial hypercholesterolemia, 107–108, 108
Families, 413, 414
Family resemblance, 278–287
Fast flushers, 202–203, 203
Fat cells, cold stress and, 117–118
Fats
energy from, 169, 169
fake, 65
glucose conversion to, 57, 57
hydrogenation of, 64, 64, 78
saturated, 62, 63, 64
trans, 64
unsaturated, 63, 64
Feathers, 478, 479
Females, 382
Fermentation, 168, 168
Ferns, 501, 501–502, 502
Fertilization, 250
double, 512, 512–513, 513
pollinators and, 510, 510–511, 511
Fiber, dietary, 60, 60
Fighting back, 633, 633
Filaments, 508, 509
Finches, of Galápagos Islands, 417, 418, 429
Fins, evolution of, 473, 473
Firs, 504, 505, 506, 506, 507
First law of thermodynamics, 140
Fish odor syndrome, 278, 279, 279
Fishes
cartilaginous, 473, 474
evolution of jaws and fins in, 473, 473–474, 474
lobe-finned, 474, 474
movement onto land, 474–475, 475
ray-finned, 473–474, 474
Fishing spider, 48
Fitness, 338, 338–339, 339
inclusive, 376
Fixation, 328
Fixed action patterns, 368, 368, 368–369
Flagella, 90, 115, 115
Flagship species, 678–679
Flatworms, 456, 456–457, 457
Fleming, Alexander, 521–522
Fleshy fruits, 515
seed dispersal and, 514, 514–515
Flight
in insects, 467
in invertebrates, 467, 467
Flowers, 508, 509
feeding and protecting in a vase, 170
Fluid mosaics, 96, 96
FMO3 gene, 278, 279, 279
Food, contamination by bacteria, 564
Food allergies, antacids and, 53–54
Food chains, 621, 621–622
inefficiency of, 622–623, 623
Food labeling, 27–28
Food webs, 621, 621
Ford, Gerald, 559
Forests
acid precipitation and, 668, 668
coniferous, 612
destruction of. See Deforestation
rain. See Tropical rain forests
seasonal, tropical, 612, 613
temperate deciduous, 612
Fossil fuels, 136
Fossils, 348, 348–350, 349
of australopithecines, 482, 483
of cells, 408, 408
difficulties classifying, 415, 415
Founder effect, 329, 330
Franklin, Rosalind, 180
Freckles, red hair and, 304, 306, 306–307
Friendly behaviors, in humans, 398
Frogs
epibatidine from, 650
life cycle of, 476, 477
mate guarding in, 388
Fructose, 56
Fruit flies
allopatric speciation of, 417
colonization by, 429
life extension in, 593–594, 594
starvation-resistant, 316, 316–317, 317, 357
Fruits, seed dispersal and, 514, 514–515
Fuels
biofuels, 136, 136–137
fossil, 136
Fundamental niche, 628, 629
Fungi, 518–525
beneficial, 521–522, 524–525
habitats of, 521, 521
life cycle of, 520, 520
mycorrhizal, 522, 522–524, 523
structure of, 520–521, 521
G
G0, 237
G1. See Gap 1 (G1)
G1/S checkpoint, 237, 237–238
G2. See Gap 2 (G2)
G2/M checkpoint, 237, 238
Galápagos Islands
Darwin’s observations on, 321–322, 322
finch species of, 417, 418, 429
Gametes, 236
male versus female, 255, 255–256, 256, 383, 513, 513
production by meiosis, 252, 252–256, 254–256
Gametophytes, 499, 499, 500
in ferns, 501, 502, 502
Gap 1 (G1), 237
Gap 2 (G2), 237
Gap junctions, 110, 110–111, 111
Garciaparra, Nomar, 5
Garlic mustard, 523
Garter snakes, mate guarding in, 388
Gastric freezing, 16–18, 17
Gastropods, 459, 459–460, 460
Geek theory of autism, 298
Geese, egg retrieval in, 368, 368–369, 371, 371–372
Gene expression, 194
control of, 194–195
Gene flow, 331
as mechanism of evolution, 331, 331
Gene libraries, 207, 207
Gene regulation, 193–196, 194, 194–196
Gene therapy, 217–218, 218
Genes, 182–184, 183, 183, 184
alleles and. See Alleles
autism and, 298
function of, 186–187, 187
for height, 297, 297
independent assortment of, 304–305, 305
interaction with environment, 302, 302–303, 303
linked, 304, 306, 306–307
with more than two alleles, 295, 295–297, 297
pedigrees and, 291, 291–292, 292
regulatory, 195
Genetic code, 191, 191, 193
damage to, 197–200, 198, 199
Genetic disorders. See Diseases and genetic disorders
Genetic diversity, loss of, genetic engineering and, 214
Genetic drift, 328, 328–331, 329, 330
Genetic engineering, 204, 208, 208, 208–212
Genetic Information Nondiscrimination Act, 217
Genetic recombination, 253
Genetically modified organisms (GMOs), 209
safety of, 212–214, 213
Genetics, 276–313
ancestry testing and, 486
family resemblance and, 278–287
genetic sequences linking all life forms and, 355, 355
genotype translation into phenotype and, 293–303
linked genes and, 304–307
Mendel’s experiments in, 282–285
mutation and, 326–328, 327
probability and chance and, 288–292
racial differences and, 438
Genital herpes, 547, 559
Genomes, 182, 182–183, 183
Genotype, 187, 286
phenotype and, 286, 286–287, 287
translation into phenotype, 293–303
Genus, 413
Geographic isolation
speciation with, 416–417, 418
speciation without, 417–418, 419
Geographic range, extinction risk and, 659, 659–660
Gestational diabetes, 376, 376–377
Ghost pipe, 523, 523
Giant kelp, 555
Ginkgo, 505
Global warming
coral reefs and, 455
greenhouse gases and, 669, 669–671, 670
Glucose, 56, 56–57
Glycerol, 95
in phospholipids, 95
Glycine, 68
Glycogen, 56–57, 57
Glycolysis, 158, 158, 158–159, 161
Glycoproteins, 70
Glyptodonts, 322, 322
GMOs. See Genetically modified organisms (GMOs)
Gnetophytes, 505
Golden lion tamarin, 411
Golden rice, 209, 209–210, 210
Golgi apparatus, 122, 122–123, 123, 127
I-5
Gonads, 252
Gonorrhea, 547
Gram, Hans Christian, 539
Gram stains, 539, 539
Grant, Peter, 340
Grant, Rosemary, 340
Graphs, 23, 23–24, 24
Grass, multigeneration observation of, 356, 356
Great Barrier Reef, 455
Great Basin bristlecone pines, 507
Great Dying, 430, 431
Green algae, 497, 497
Greenhouse gases, 669, 669–671, 670
increase in, deforestation and, 672
Greenland glacier, global warming and, 670
Group selection, 381, 381
Growth
by molting versus adding to body in continuous manner, 449, 451
need for new cells and, 242, 242
reproduction and, 584, 585
Growth rate, 575
Guam, brown tree snake and, 664–665, 665
Guinea pigs, hazard factor and, 593
Gulf of Mexico
dead zone in, 642
oil spill in, 652–653
Gulf Stream, 618
Gymnosperms, 504, 505, 506, 506, 507, 507
H
Habitat, 611, 611
loss and degradation of, due to human activity, 661, 661
Habitat conservation, 678, 678
Habitat restoration, 679
Habitat services, 651, 652
Habitat tolerance, extinction risk and, 660
Hagfishes, 473
Hair, 479
color and texture of, shaving and, 9, 10, 11, 12, 14
male-pattern baldness and, 300–301
of mammals, 479
red, freckles and, 304, 306, 306–307
texture of, protein and, 71, 71
Halophiles, 436
Hamilton, W. D., 375
Hanging flies, mate selection in, 387
Haploid cells, 250, 251
in bryophytes, 499, 499, 500
in ferns, 501, 502, 502
of fungi, 520, 520
Hardy, G. H., 335
Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium, 336, 337
Hardy-Weinberg Law, 335–337, 336
Hawn, Goldie, 333
Hazard factor, determinants of, 592, 592–593
HbS allele, 556
Heat capacity, of water, 49–50, 50
Height genes, 297, 297
Heliconius, 416
Hemoglobin, gene coding for, evolution and, 355, 355
Herbivores, 620, 621
Herbs, 639
Heredity, 280. See also Genetics
Heritability, 333
natural selection and, 332–333, 333
Hermaphrodites, 262
Hermaphroditism, 269
Herpes
genital, 547, 559
oral, 559
Heterozygous genotype, 285
HGH. See Human growth hormone (HGH)
Hiding, 633, 633
Hierarchical organization, of life, 31
Himalayan rabbits, 302–303, 303
Histones, 234
HIV/AIDS, 547
difficulty of controlling, 561–563, 562, 563
mode of infection by HIV and, 100–101, 101
pandemic of, 559
Homer, 280
Homo erectus, 482, 483, 484
Homo ergaster, 482
Homo floresiensis, 482, 483, 484
Homo habilis, 482
Homo heidelbergensis, 415
Homo neanderthalensis, 482, 483
Homo sapiens, 413, 415, 482, 484. See also Humans
Homologous features, 425
Homologous pairs, 252, 252, 253, 254
crossing over and, 257, 257
Homologous structures, 353, 353
Homozygous genotype, 285
Honest signals, 397, 397
Honeybees, waggle dance of, 395–396, 396
Hong Kong flu, 560
Hooke, Robert, 86
Horizontal gene transfer, 433
Hormones
estrogen, 65–66, 66
human growth hormone production, 215–216, 216
steroid, 65–66, 66
testosterone, 65–66, 66, 67
Horses, evolutionary history of, 349–350, 350
Horsetails, 501, 501–502
Hosts, 556, 634
House flies, mate guarding in, 388
Hubbard Brook Experimental Forest, 611
Hudson, Kate, 333
Hudson’s Bay Company, 579
Human activities, 662–673
acid rain and, 666–668, 667, 668
deforestation and, 671–673, 671–673
greenhouse gases and, 669, 669–671, 670
introduction of non-native species and, 664–666, 664–666, 680
mass extinction due to, 660–661, 661
reversibility of ecosystem disturbances due to, 662–663, 663
Human body
elements in, 42, 43
pH and, 52–53, 53
Human Genome Project, 76
Human growth hormone (HGH), production of, 215–216, 216
Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), 561. See also HIV/AIDS
Human population, 595–602
age distribution of, 595
demographic transitions and, 597–598, 598
growth of, 595–601
limit to, 599–601, 599–601
Humans
babies’ fear of snakes and, 370, 370
current mass extinction due to activity of, 660–661, 661
evolution of, 481, 481–485, 482, 484
friendly behaviors in, 398
initial migration out of Africa, 483–485, 484
mating systems of, 392, 392–393
number of offspring produced by, 382
sex determination in, 260, 260–261, 261
similarity of human and chimpanzee genes and, 481–482
Hutchinson-Gilford progeria syndrome, 233
Hybrid individuals, 413
Hybridization, 416
difficulties classifying species and, 415, 416
Hydrogen
bonding of, 45
formation of molecules containing, 406, 407, 407
Hydrogen bonds, 46, 46–47, 47
in water, 48, 48–49
Hydrophilic molecules, 62, 95, 95
Hydrophobic molecules, 62, 95, 95
Hypertonic solutions, 104, 104, 105
Hyphae, 519
Hypotheses, 9
formulating, 9–10, 10
null, 9–10
testable predictions and, 10–11, 11
theory and, 15
Hypotonic solutions, 104, 104, 105
I
Ice
density of, 50, 50
origin of life in, 409–410
Ice caps, 612
Ice caps, global warming and, 669, 670 670
Illness. See Diseases and genetic disorders
Inclusive fitness, 376
Incomplete dominance, 293, 293–294, 294
Incomplete metamorphosis, 467, 468
Independent variables, 24, 24, 24
Indicator species, 679
Individual organisms, 573
Influenza A virus, 560–561, 561
Influenza pandemics, 559, 559–560
Inheritance, 333
Inhibitors, 73, 73, 73–74
Innate behaviors, 368, 368, 368–369
Insect wings, evolution of, 347, 347
Insects, 464, 465. See also specific insects
flight in, 467
metamorphosis in, 467, 467–468
plants eating, 517, 517
Instincts, 368, 368, 368–369
Insulin, exocytosis and, 108–109, 109
Intelligence, of invertebrates, 462, 462
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, 670
Intermediate filaments, 114, 114
Intermembrane space, 117
Interphase, 236, 236, 237, 245
meiosis and, 252–253, 254
Intersex individuals, 269
Intestinal gas, 552, 552
Introduced species, 664, 664–666, 664–666
Introns, 185
Invagination, 93, 93
Invasive species, 664, 664–666, 664–666
Invertebrates, 450, 451, 452–465, 467–469
arthropods, 463, 463–465, 464
cnidarians, 454, 454–456, 455
echinoderms, 468–469, 469
flight in, 467, 467
intelligence of, 462, 462
metamorphosis in, 467, 467–468
molluscs, 459–461, 460, 461
sponges, 452, 452–453
worms, 456–459, 457, 458
Ionic bonds, 45, 46, 47
Ionic compounds, 45, 46
Ions, 44, 44
Islands, 657, 657
Isotonic solutions, 104, 104
Isotopes, 42, 42
J
Jaws, evolution of, 473, 474
Jeffreys, Alec, 220
Jellyfishes, 454, 454, 456
Jet lag, NADH and, 165–166
K
Kalahari Desert, 616
Karyotype, 265, 265–266, 266
Kelp, 554, 555
Keystone species, 641, 641, 679
Kin selection, 374, 374–377, 375, 376, 378
Kinetic energy, 138, 138
Kingdoms, 413, 414
Kittiwake gull, reproductive output in, 384
Klinefelter syndrome, 268, 268
Knowles, Beyonce, 411
Korean flu, 560
Krebs cycle, 160, 160, 160–162, 161
L
La Niña, 619, 619
lac operon, 194, 195, 195–196
Lactation, 383
Lactobacillus acidophilus, 543, 543–544
Lactose intolerance, 74
Lagging strand, 241
Lakes, 613, 613
acid precipitation and, 668
Lamarck, Jean-Baptiste, 319, 320
Lampreys, 473
Lancelets, 471, 472
Landscape conservation, 678
Language, 396, 396, 396–397
Large weevil, 610, 610
Larva, 467, 467
Law of segregation, 284–285, 285, 285
Leading strand, 240, 240–241
Learned behaviors, 369, 369–370
Learning, 369
prepared, 370
Leeches, 459
Lemmings, 579
Lewis models, 45
Lichens, 524, 639
Life, 406
events following origin of, 433–434, 434
origin of, 406–410
water and, 49–51
Life histories, 582, 582–588
life tables and survivorship curves and, 587, 587–588, 588
natural selection and, 582–584, 583, 584
tradeoffs between growth, reproduction, and longevity and, 584–586, 585
Life tables, 587, 587
Life-dinner hypothesis, 635
Light energy, 146, 146, 146–147, 147
capture as chemical energy, 149–150, 149–151, 152
Limbs, evolution of, 475, 475
Linked genes, 304, 306, 306, 306–307
Linnaeus, Carolus, 413, 420, 432
Lions, kin selection in, 377
Lipids, 61, 61, 61–66
in diet, 62, 62–64, 64–65
regulating growth and development, 65, 65–66, 66
Lipoproteins, 70
I-6
Living organisms and systems, common characteristics of, 31
Living systems, pH and, 51–53, 52, 53
Lobe-finned fishes, 474, 474
Loci, 183
Locust swarms, 578, 578
Logistic growth, 576, 577
Loneliness, health consequences of, 194
Longevity, 589–590
determinants of, 592, 592–593
tradeoff with reproduction, 2
Lucy (australopithecine), 482, 483
Luehea seemannii, 465, 676
Lungs, evolution of, 475, 475
Lyell, Charles, 319, 320, 323
Lysosomes, 118, 118–119, 119, 127
M
M phase. See Mitotic phase (M phase)
Macroevolution, 426, 426, 426–431, 427
adaptive radiations and, 428–429, 429
mass extinctions and, 430, 430–431, 431
uneven pace of evolution and, 427–428, 428
Macromolecules, 55
Mad cow disease, 558
Madagascar periwinkle, 650
Malaria, 556, 556
Malayan pit viper, 650
Male-pattern baldness, 300–301
Males, 382
Malthus, Thomas, 323
Mammals, 479, 479–480, 480
Mammary glands, 479
Marsupials, 480, 480
Martha (passenger pigeon), 658, 658
Mass, 41
Mass extinctions, 429, 429, 430, 430, 430–431, 431, 658–659
current, 660–661, 661
Mate guarding, 388, 388, 388–390, 389
Mating systems, 391, 391, 391–393, 392
Maximum sustainable yield, 580, 580, 580–581, 581
Mechanical defenses, 632, 632
Meiosis, 233, 250, 250–259
gamete production by, 252, 252–256, 254–256
sexual reproduction and, 250–251, 251, 258–259
variation created by, 257, 257
Membrane enzymes, 97, 97
Mendel, Gregor, 282–285, 303, 307, 368
Mendel’s law of independent assortment, 304–305, 305, 305
Mendel’s law of segregation, 284–285, 285, 285
Messenger RNA (mRNA), 187
bacterial, 540
transcription and, 188–190, 189
translation and, 190–191, 190–192, 193
Metabolic pathways, 72
Metabolic plasmids, 540
Metabolism, 72
Metamorphosis, 467, 467–468
Metaphase, 245
in meiosis, 253, 254, 254
in mitosis, 245, 246
Metastasis, 248, 248
Methane
bonds in, 45, 46
consumption by bacteria, 652–653
as greenhouse gas, 670
Methanogens, 436
Methuselah tree, 507
Methyl jasmonate (MJ), 516–517
Microbes, 432, 534. See also Archaea; Bacteria; Protists; Viruses
abundance of, 535, 536–537, 537
diversity of, 534, 534–535
habitats of, 535–536, 536
normal flora, 543
size of, 535, 536
Microevolution, 426, 426–427, 427
Microfilaments, 114, 114
Microspheres, 409
Microsporidia, 519, 519
Microtubules, 114, 114, 245
Migration, 331
as mechanism of evolution, 331, 331
Milk of Magnesia, osmosis and, 105
Miller, Stanley, 407, 407, 409
Millipedes, 464, 464
Mimicry, 632, 632–633
Mismatches, 380
Mitochondria, 91–92, 92, 93, 115, 115–117, 116, 127
DNA of, 117
structure of, 162, 162
Mitochondrial matrix, 117, 162, 162–163
Mitosis, 233, 237, 242–249
cancer and, 246–249, 248, 249
events preceding, 243–244, 244, 245
need for, 242, 242–243
rate of, 243, 243
steps in, 245–246, 246–247
Mitotic phase (M phase), 236, 236, 236–238, 237
MJ. See Methyl jasmonate (MJ)
MMR vaccine, autism and, 28, 28–29
Mojave Desert, 616
Molecular biology, common genetic sequences revealed by, 355, 355
Molecular structure, models representing, 45
Molecules, 45
bonds in, 45–47
hydrophobic and hydrophilic, 62
nonpolar, 51
organic, formation of, 406, 407, 407
passive transport across membranes, 102, 102–103, 103
polar, 47
self-replicating, formation of, 408, 408
Molluscs, 459–461, 460, 461
Monk parakeets, 664, 664
Monkeys, fear of snakes in, 369, 369
Monogamy, 391, 392, 392
Monophyletic groups, 423, 423
Monosaccharides, 55, 55–56
Monotremes, 480, 480
Mono-unsaturated fats, 64
Monsanto Company, 213
Morphological species concept, 416
Morphospecies, 524
Mosses, 498–500, 499, 500, 639
Moths, mate guarding in, 388
mRNA. See Messenger RNA (mRNA)
MRSA infections, 548
Multigeneration experiments, 356, 356–357, 357
Multiple allelism, 295, 295, 295–297, 297
Mussels, 460
Mutations, 197, 197–200, 198, 199, 326, 326–328, 327
chemical-induced, 200
point, 198, 199
radiation-induced, 198–200
spontaneous, 198
Mutualism, 636, 636–638, 637
Mycelium, 520
Mycorrhizae, 522, 522, 522–523, 523
N
NADH, 159, 160, 161, 162, 163, 167
jet lag and, 165–166
NADPH, 150, 152
Naked chickens, 212, 214
National Invasive Species Council, 666
Natterjack toads, call of, 397, 397
Natural preserves, design of, 678–679, 679
Natural selection
adaptation to environment and, 339–341, 340
aging and, 590–591, 591
artificial selection as special case of, 341
coevolution and, 629
conditions for occurrence of, 332–334, 332–335
directional selection and, 342, 342–343, 343, 344–346
disruptive selection and, 344, 344
evolution of complex traits and behaviors and, 346, 346–347, 347
life histories and, 582–584, 583, 584
as mechanism of evolution, 15, 325–326
stabilizing selection and, 343, 343–344
theory of evolution by, 15
Nautiluses, 461
Neutrons, 41
Niches, 628, 628, 628–629
Nitrogen cycle, 625, 625–626
Nitrogen dioxide, acid rain and, 666, 666–668, 667
Nodes, 421, 421–422
Non-amniotes, 476
Noncompetitive inhibitors, 73, 73–74
Nondisjunction, 267, 267
Nonpolar head, 95, 95
Nonpolar molecules, 51
Non-vascular plants, 496, 496, 498–500, 499, 500
Normal flora, 543
Norway spruces, 507
Notochord, 470, 471
Novelty-seeking individuals, 308
Nuclear membrane (nuclear envelope), 112, 113
Nuclear pores, 112–113
Nucleic acids, 75, 75–77, 180. See also Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA); Ribonucleic acid (RNA)
information stored by, 75, 75–76
Nucleolus, 113, 113
Nucleotides, 75, 75, 75–76, 180
Nucleus (atomic), 41, 41
Nucleus (of cell), 91, 112, 112–113, 113, 127
Nudibranches, 460
Null hypothesis, 9, 9–10
Nuptial gifts, 387
O
Observations
anecdotal, 27, 28
in scientific method, 8–9, 9
Ocean currents, weather and, 618, 618–619, 619
Oceans
deep, 657
open, 613, 613
Octopuses, 461, 461
intelligence of, 462, 462
Offspring, number and size of, 584–585, 585
Oils, hydrogenation of, 64, 64, 78
Olestra, 65
Open oceans, 613, 613
Operons, 195
Oral herpes, 559
Orders, 413, 414
Organelles, 91
Organic molecules, formation of, 406, 406–407, 407
Origin of replication, 239
The Origin of Species (Darwin)
on classification, 421
on evolution of behavior, 409, 421, 428
on natural selection, 340, 357
on pace of evolution, 428
publication of, 323–324, 324
survival of the fittest and, 338
on variation in nature, 332
on “warm little pond,” 409
Osmosis, 104, 104, 104–105, 105
Outbreeding, 513
Ovaries, 508, 509
Ovules, 504
Oxygen, bonding of, 45, 45–46
Oxygen Revolution, 542
Oysters, 460
Ozone layer depletion, 674, 674–676, 675
P
Pacific yew tree, 650, 650
Pair bonds, 392
Pan paniscus, 661, 661
Pará (Brazil), 673
Paramecium, 554
Parasites, 556, 556, 634
Parasitism, 634, 634–636, 635
Parent cells, 235, 235, 243, 244
Parenting, by males versus females, 383
Passive transport, 102, 102, 102–103, 103
Paternity uncertainty, 384, 386, 389–390
Pathogenic bacteria, 545, 545–547, 546
Pauling, Linus, 21, 179–180
PCR. See Polymerase chain reaction (PCR)
Pea plants, Mendel’s experiments using, 282–285
Peacocks, mate selection in, 387, 391–392
Peat, 500, 500
Peat moss, 500
Pedigrees, 291, 291, 291–292, 292
Penicillium, 519, 519, 522
Peptide bonds, 70
Peptidoglycans, 539
Periodic table, 42
Persian buttercup, 411
Pesticides, containing Bacillus thuringiensis, 210–211, 211
pH, 51, 51–53, 52, 53
enzymes and, 73, 73
Phagocytosis, 107, 107, 554
Pharyngeal slits, 470, 471
Phenotype, 187, 286
genotype and, 286, 286–287, 287
genotype translation into, 293–303
Phenylalanine, 302, 302
Phenylketonuria (PKU), 302, 302
Pheromones, 395
Phospholipid bilayer, 95, 95, 95–96
Phospholipids, 66, 66, 95
Phosphorus cycle, 626, 626–627
Photoautotrophs, 542, 542
Photons, 146
Photosynthesis, 92, 137, 137, 143, 143–156, 144
Calvin cycle and, 152, 152–153, 153
CAM and, 155–156
C4, 154–155, 155
chlorophyll and. See Chlorophyll
chloroplasts and, 145, 145
C3, 154
I-7
“photo” segment of, 144, 144, 150, 151, 152
photosystems and, 149–150, 149–151
sunlight and, 146, 146–147, 147
“synthesis” segment of, 144, 144, 152, 152–153, 153
Photosystems, 149, 149–150, 149–151, 152
Phyla, 413, 414
Phylogeny, 421
Physical defenses, 632, 632, 632–633
Phytoplankton, 555
Pigments, 146. See also Chlorophyll
Pili, 90
Pines, 504, 505, 506, 506, 507
Pinocytosis, 107
Pitchfork, Colin, 220–221, 221
PKU. See Phenylketonuria (PKU)
Placebo effect, 18
Placebos, 13
Placentals, 480, 480
Plants, 494, 494–496, 494–517
adapted to water scarcity, 153–156, 154–156
carnivorous, 517, 517
cell wall of, 124, 124–125, 127
chloroplasts of, 126, 126–127, 127
crop. See Agriculture
first, 497–502
flowering. See Angiosperms
fruits of, 514, 514–515
fungal symbionts of, 522, 522–523, 523
fungi and, 518–519, 519, 522, 522–524, 523
land, first, 497–498, 498
with medicinal uses, 516
non-vascular, 496, 496, 498–500, 499, 500
photosynthesis and. See Chlorophyll; Photosynthesis
relationship with animals, 514–517
resistance to predation, 515–517, 516, 517
seeds and, 503, 503–504, 503–507, 514, 514–515
vacuoles of, 125, 125–126, 127
vascular, 501, 501–502, 502
Plasma membrane, 89, 89, 94, 94–101
active transport across, 106, 106
diffusion across, 102, 102–103, 103
endocytosis and exocytosis and, 107–109, 107–109
faulty, diseases due to, 98, 98–99, 99
“fingerprint” of, 100, 100–101, 101
functions of, 95
molecules embedded in, 96, 96–97, 97
origin of life and, 408–409, 409
osmosis across, 104, 104–105, 105
phospholipid bilayer of, 95, 95–96
Plasmids, 206, 206, 540
Plasmodesmata, 124, 125
Plasmodium, 556, 556
Platypus, 480, 480
Pleiotropy, 298, 298–299, 299
Point mutations, 198, 199
Polar bodies, 256, 256
Polar head, 95, 95
Polar ice, 612. See also Ice caps
Polar molecules, 47
Pollen grains, 504
Pollination, 504, 506, 510, 510–511, 511
Polyandry, 391
Polychaetes, 458
Polydactyly, among Amish people, 329, 330
Polygamy, 391
Polygenic traits, 297, 297, 297–298
Polygyny, 391, 391, 391, 392
Polymerase chain reaction (PCR), 205, 206
Polypeptides, 70
Polyploidy, 418
Polysaccharides, 58, 58, 58–59
Polyunsaturated fats, 64
Ponds, 613, 613
Population bottleneck effect, 329, 330, 331
Population density, 576
Population ecology, 570–607, 573
aging and, 589–594, 602
environmental limitation on population growth and, 576, 576–577, 577
growth rate of populations and, 574–575, 575
human population growth and, 595–601
life histories and, 582–588
maximum sustainable yield and, 580, 580–581, 581
populations cycling between large and small and, 578, 578–579, 579
Population growth
bacterial, 259, 259
environmental limit on, 576, 576–577, 577
rapid, cost of, 585–586
rate of, 574–575, 575
Population size, extinction risk and, 660
Populations, 573
human. See Human population
Porcupines, hazard factor and, 593
Portuguese man-o’-war, 454
Positive correlation, 27
Post-anal tails, 470, 471
Postzygotic barriers, 412, 412, 413
Potential energy, 138, 138
Praying mantises, 259
Precipitation. See Rainfall
Predation
adaptations produced by, 631–634, 632–634
parasitism as, 634–636, 635
plant defenses against, 515–517, 516, 517
Predictions, testable, devising, 10–11, 11
Pregnancy, gestational diabetes and, 376, 376–377
Prepared learning, 370
Preseucoila imallshookupis, 413
Presley, Elvis, 413
Prezygotic barriers, 412, 412–413, 413
Prilosec, 54
Primary active transport, 106, 106
Primary consumers, 620, 621
Primary electron acceptor, 149
Primary productivity, 620
Primary structure of proteins, 70, 71
Primary succession, 639–640, 640
Primase, 240
Primates. See also specific primates
evolution of, 481, 481–483, 482
Principles of Geology (Lyell), 320, 321
Prions, 558
Probiotic therapy, 543–544
Producers, 620
energy flows to consumers from, 620–622, 621
Prokaryotes, 89. See also Archaea; Bacteria
cell division in, 233
gene regulation in, 194, 195, 195–196
replication in, 234–235, 235
structural features of, 89, 89–90
Prokaryotic cells, 89, 89, 89–90, 432
chromosomes of, 234, 234
Promoter sites, 188, 195
Prophase, 245
in meiosis, 253, 254, 254, 255
in mitosis, 245, 246
Protein synthesis, 193
RNA and, 77, 77
Proteins, 67, 67–74
amino acids and, 68, 68
in cytoskeleton, 114
denaturation of, 71, 71
in diet, 68–69, 69
energy from, 169, 169
enzymatic, 68, 72–74, 72–74, 97
functions of, 67, 67–68
receptor, 96–97, 97
recognition, 97, 97
structure of, 70, 70–71, 71
surface, 96, 96
transmembrane, 96, 96
transport, 97, 97, 103
Proteus, 538
Prothallus, 502
Protists, 423, 437, 448, 553–556
animal-like, 554
first eukaryotes as, 553, 553–554
fungus-like, 554, 554–555
pathogenic, 556, 556
plant-like, 554, 555, 555
Protons, 41
number of, 41, 41–42, 42
Protostomes, 449
Provisioning services, 651, 652
Pseudoscience, 27, 27, 27–28
Punctuated equilibrium, 427, 427–428, 428
Punnett, R. C., 335
Punnett square, 286, 286–287, 287
Pupa, 467, 467, 467–468
Purple loosestrife, 665, 665
Pyruvate, 158
Q
Quagga mussels, 665–666
Quaternary structure of proteins, 70, 71
R
Rabies, 635, 635–636
Rabies virus, 560
Racial differences, 438
Radial symmetry, 448
Radiation therapy, 249
Radiation-induced mutations, 198–200
Radioactive atoms, 42
Radiometric dating, 348, 348–349, 349
Rain shadows, 616
Rainfall
acid rain, 666–668, 667, 668
day of the week and, 32
global patterns of, 615, 615–616
Random assortment, 253
Randomization, 18
Rats
running in maze, 346, 346–347
superstitious behavior in, 5, 5
Ray-finned fishes, 473, 473–474, 474
Realized niche, 628, 629
Receptor proteins, 96, 96–97, 97
Receptor-mediated endocytosis, 107, 107–108, 109
Recessive traits, 284, 284
frequency in population, 335–337, 336
Reciprocal altruism, 374, 377–378, 378, 379
Recognition proteins, 97, 97
Recombinant DNA technology, 208, 208–209
Recombination, 253
Red deer
mate selection in, 387
tradeoff between reproduction and growth and, 584
Redwoods, 504, 505, 506, 506
Regeneration, in photosynthesis, 152–153
Regulating services, 651, 652
Repeatability, of experiments, 21, 21–22
Replication, 234, 238–241, 239, 240
of chromosomes, 244, 252, 252–253, 254
discontinuous, 241
origin of, 239
in prokaryotes, 234–235, 235
Replication forks, 239
Reproducibility, of experiments, 21, 21–22
Reproduction
asexual. See Asexual reproduction
difficulties classifying species and, 415, 415
growth and, 584, 585
sexual. See Sexual reproduction
survival and, 584, 585
tradeoff with longevity, 2
Reproductive cells, 236. See also Eggs; Gametes; Sperm
Reproductive investment, 382, 382–394, 582, 582–583, 583
competition and courtship and, 386–388, 387
differing patterns in males and females, 384, 384–386
mate guarding and, 388, 388–390, 389
monogamy versus polygamy and, 391, 391–393, 392
paternity uncertainty and, 384, 386, 389–390
sexual dimorphism and, 393, 393–394
Reproductive isolation, 411
Reproductive output, 591
Reproductive success
differential, natural selection and, 333, 333–334
fitness and, 338–339, 339
of humans, 392, 392–393
Resistance plasmids, 540
Resource partitioning, 630, 630
Respiration, cellular. See Cellular respiration
Restoration ecology, 679
Restriction enzymes, 205, 205
Retroviruses, 562
Rh blood group, 297
Ribonucleic acid (RNA), 75
messenger. See Messenger RNA (mRNA)
origin of life and, 408, 408
protein synthesis and, 77, 77
structure of, 77, 77
transfer, 190, 191
viral, 557, 558, 558
Ribosomal subunits, 190
Ribosomes, 89, 90, 113
Rice, golden, 209, 209–210, 210
Ring species, 416
difficulties classifying, 415, 415–416
Rivers, 613, 613
RNA. See Ribonucleic acid (RNA)
RNA bases, 75–76
RNA viruses, 559
Rodents
hazard factors and, 592, 592
reproductive strategy of, 583, 583
Ronaldo, Cruistiano, 411
Roots, 495
Rose, 411
Rough endoplasmic reticulum (rough ER), 120, 121, 127
Roundworms, 456, 457, 457–458
Rubisco, 152
Ruffin, Julius, 178, 178
S
S phase, 237
Sahara Desert, 616
Salamanders, DNA of, 184
Salmon, tradeoff between reproduction and survival in, 584, 585
I-8
Sand dollars, 468, 469
Sands, Bobby, 316
SARS. See Severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS)
Saturated fats, 62, 63, 64
Saussurea laniceps, 345–346
Savannas, 612, 613
Scallops, 460
Scathophaga stercoraria, 258
SCID. See Severe combined immunodeficiency (SCID)
Science, 2, 2–3
limitations of, 29–30, 30
Scientific literacy, 4
Scientific method, 5–6, 6
steps in, 7, 7–14, 8
Scorpions, 464
Scrubbers, to prevent acid rain, 668
Sea anemones, 454, 456
Sea slugs, 459–460
Sea stars, 468, 469, 641
Sea urchins, 468, 469
Seaweed, 555
Second law of thermodynamics, 140
Secondary active transport, 106, 106
Secondary consumers, 620, 621
Secondary structure of proteins, 70, 71
Secondary succession, 640, 640
Seeds, 503, 503, 503–504
dispersal of, 514, 514–515
in gymnosperms, 504, 505, 506, 506
Segmented worms, 456, 458, 458–459
Segregation, law of, 284–285, 285
Sequoia sempervirens, 413
Sessile organisms, 447
Severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS), 559, 560
Severe combined immunodeficiency (SCID), 218, 218
Sex chromosomes, 252, 252, 260, 260–261, 261
incorrect number of, 268, 268–269
Sex determination
in humans, 260, 260–261, 261
in non-human species, 262, 262–264
selecting sex of child, 270
SRY gene and, 298–299
Sex-linked traits, 291, 299–301, 300
Sexual dimorphism, 393, 393–394, 394
Sexual partners
female tactics for selecting, 386–388, 387
male-female difference in selectiveness about, 384, 384–386
Sexual reproduction, 250
advantages of, 258, 258
disadvantages of, 258–259, 259
Sexual selection, 334
Sexually transmitted diseases (STDs), 546, 546–547, 547
Shaving, hair color and texture and, 9, 10, 11, 12, 14
Shoots, 495
Short tandem repeats (STRs), 221–223, 222
Shrubs, 639
Siamese cats, 302–303, 303
Sick buildings, 521, 521
Sickle-cell disease, 298, 299
Sierra redwoods, 507
Sign stimulus, 368
Simple diffusion, 103, 103
Simple sugars, 55, 55–56
Single-gene traits, 281, 281
Sinosauropteryx, 478, 479
Sister chromatids, 244, 245
in meiosis, 252, 253–254, 255
Sitka spruces, 507
Skin cancer, sunscreen to prevent, 200–202
Slash-and-burn agriculture, 672
Smith, Jaden, 280, 280
Smith, Will, 280, 280
Smooth endoplasmic reticulum (smooth ER), 120, 120–121, 121, 127
Snails, 459
Snakes
human babies’ fear of, 370, 370
monkeys’ fear of, 369, 369
Snow, John, 545
Solar energy
distribution of, 614, 614–615
species richness and, 656, 656
Solutes, 102, 102
Solutions
hypertonic, 104, 104, 105
hypotonic, 104, 104, 105
isotonic, 104, 104
Solvents, 102, 102
water as, 50–51, 51
Somatic cells, 236
Space-filling models, 45
Spanish influenza, 559, 559–560
Speciation, 416, 416–419
allopatric, 416–417, 418
sympatric, 417–418, 419
Speciation events, 421
Species, 411, 411–419, 414
biological species concept and, 411, 412, 414–416, 415
change into another species, determining, 415, 415
classification of, 420–421, 432–434, 433, 434
coevolution of, 629, 629–630
commensalism and, 636, 636, 637
determinants of longevity and, 592, 592–593
difficulties defining, 414–416, 415
distribution patterns of, 351, 351–352, 352
endangered, 660, 677
endemic, 657
extinction of. See Extinctions
flagship, 678–679
indicator, 679
invasive, 664–666, 664–666
keystone, 641, 641, 679
morphological species concept and, 416
mutualism and, 636, 636–638
naming of, 413–414, 414
niches and, 628, 628–629
non-native, introduction of, 661, 664–666, 664–666, 680
number on earth, 465–466
prioritizing for preservation, 676, 676–677, 677
speciation and, 416–419
threatened, 660
umbrella, 679
Species jumping, by viruses, 560–561, 561
Species richness, 656, 656
Specific epithet, 413
Spemann, Hans, 219
Spencer, Herbert, 338
Sperm. See also Gametes
production in meiosis, 255
separating to select sex of child, 270
Sphagnum moss, 500
Spiders, 464, 464
Spindle, 245
Spindle assembly checkpoint, 237, 238
Spindle fibers, 245
Spirilli, 538, 538
Sponges, 452, 452–453
Spontaneous mutations, 198
Sporangia, 501
Spores, 500, 501, 502
Sporophytes, 499, 499, 500
in ferns, 501, 502, 502
Spruces, 504, 505, 506, 506, 507
Squids, 461, 461
SRY gene, 298–299
Stabilizing selection, 343, 343, 343–344
Stamens, 508, 509
Staphylococcus aureus, antibiotic resistance of, 356, 357, 548
Starch, 58
Statistics, 25, 25–27, 26
STDs. See Sexually transmitted diseases (STDs)
Stem cells, 218
Steroid hormones, 65–66, 66
Sterols, 65
Stickleback fish, aggressive displays and attacks by, 368, 369
Stigmas, 508, 509
Stomach, hydrochloric acid in, 52, 53–54
Stomach ulcers, gastric freezing and, 16–18, 17
Stomata, 154, 154
Streams, 613, 613
acid precipitation and, 668
Streptococcus pyogenes, 546, 546
Stroma, 126, 145, 145
STRs. See Short tandem repeats (STRs)
Styles, 508, 509
Substrate molecules, 72
Succession, 639, 639–640, 640
Sugars
blood, 56, 56–57
creation by photosynthesis, 152
simple, 55–56
Sulfur dioxide, acid rain and, 666, 666–668, 667
Sunlight. See Light energy
Sunscreen, skin cancer prevention and, 200–202
Superstition, 5, 5–6
Surface proteins, 96, 96
Survival, reproduction and, 584, 585
Survivorship curves, 587, 587, 587–588
Swanson, Bob, 215
Swine fever, 560
Sympatric speciation, 417, 417–418, 419
Syphilis, 547
Systematics, 421
T
Tadpoles, 477
Tails, post-anal, 470, 471
Taq polymerase, 551
Tasmanian devil, 659–660
Taste preferences, 366–367, 367
Taxol, 650, 650
Taxus brevifolia, 650, 650
Tay-Sachs disease, 119, 203, 217, 217, 289, 289
Telomeres, 232, 232–233, 233
Telophase, 246
in meiosis, 253, 254, 255
in mitosis, 246, 247
Temperate deciduous forests, 612
Temperate grasslands, 612, 613
Temperatures. See also Global warming
altitude and, 616–617
enzymes and, 73, 73
modern landscapes and, 617, 617
Termites, 60
Terrestrial biomes, 612, 612
Terrestrial slugs, 459, 460
Tertiary consumers, 620, 620–621, 621
Tertiary structure of proteins, 70, 71
Testable predictions, devising, 10–11, 11
Test-cross, 290, 290
Testosterone, 65–66, 66, 67
Tetrapods, 476
Textbooks, access to, performance in class and, 25–27, 26
Theobroma cacao, fungi and, 524–525
Theories, 15
Thermodynamics, 140
Thermophiles, 436
Thermus aquaticus, 551
Thompson, William, 346
Thorium-236, 42
Threatened species, 660
Three-spined sticklebacks, temperature and growth rates of, 586
Thylakoids, 126, 145
Tibetan snow lotus, 345–346
Tight junctions, 110, 111
Tiktaalik, 350, 350
Tissues, categorization of animals and, 448
Tonicity, 104, 104
Topography, 616
weather and, 616, 616–617, 617
Tortoises, hazard factor and, 592, 592
Total reproductive output, 383, 383
Toxoplasma, 635
Traits, 184, 321, 321–322
analogous, 425
behavioral, evolution of. See Behavioral traits, evolution of
carriers of, 291–292
categorization of, 342, 342
complex, natural selection causing evolution of, 346, 346–347, 347
dihybrid, 304–305, 305
dominant. See Dominant traits
physical, evolution of. See Evolution
pleiotropic, 298–299, 299
polygenic, 297, 297–298
recessive, 284, 284, 335–337, 336
sex-linked, 291, 299–301, 300
single-gene, 281, 281
true-breeding, 282–283
variation for, natural selection and, 332, 332
Trans fats, 64
Transcription, 187, 187, 188–190, 189
Transduction, 540, 540–541, 541
Transfer RNA (tRNA), 190, 191
Transformation, 541, 541
Transgenic organisms, 205, 205–206, 206, 211–212, 212
Translation, 187, 187, 190–191, 190–192, 193
Transmembrane proteins, 96, 96
Transport proteins, 97, 97, 103
Treatment, 16
Trees, 639
Trichomoniasis, 547
Trickery, pollinators and, 510, 510
Triglycerides, 62
Trisomy 21, 265–267, 265–267
tRNA. See Transfer RNA (tRNA)
Trobriand Islanders, male-female differences in selectiveness about sexual partners of, 385
Trophic levels, 620, 621
Tropical rain forests, 612, 613, 656, 657
destruction of, 661, 661, 671–673, 671–673
Tropical seasonal forests, 612, 613
True-breeding traits, 282, 282–283
Tuber, 522
I-9
Tundra, 612
Tunicates, 470, 471
Turgor pressure, 126
Turkeys, selection for breast size, 342–343, 343
Turner syndrome, 268, 268
Turtles, sex determination in, 262, 262–264
U
Umbrella species, 679
Unsaturated fats, 63, 64
Uranium-238, 42
Urey, Harold, 407, 407, 409
Uta stansburiana, tradeoff between number and size of offspring of, 584–585, 585
UVB light, ozone layer depletion and, 675
V
Vacuoles, 125, 125–126, 127
Valproic acid, with anti-HIV drugs, 21, 21
Vampire bats, reciprocal altruism in, 377–378, 378
van Leeuwenhoek, Antonie, 599
Variables, 16
dependent, 24, 24
independent, 24, 24
Vascular plants, 501, 501, 501–502, 502
Vertebrae, evolution of, 475, 475
Vertebrates, 451
evolution of jaws and fins in, 473, 473–474, 474
jawless, 473
movement onto land, 474–475, 475
phylogeny of, 472, 472
size of, 472
terrestrial, 476–485
Vesicles, 107
Vestigial structures, 353, 353–354, 354
Vinblastine, 650
Vincristine, 650
Virulence plasmids, 540
Viruses, 433, 557–563. See also HIV/AIDS
diseases caused by, 559, 559–560
DNA, 559
organisms infected by, 560, 560–561, 561
RNA, 559
Visual displays, of data, 23, 23–25, 24
Visual signals, 395
Vitamin C, cancer and, 21, 25
Viviparity, 480
Volcanic eruptions, 663, 663
W
Waggle dance, 395, 395–396, 396
Wallace, Alfred Russel, 323, 323
Warning coloration, 632, 632–633
Wasps
pollination by, 510
sex determination in, 262, 262
Water
cohesiveness of, 48, 48–49, 49
frozen, 50, 50. See also Ice caps
properties of, 49–51
scarce, plant adaptation to, 153–156, 154–156
Water intoxication, 128
Watson, James, 180, 180, 238
Waxes, 66
Weather, 614–619. See also Global warming; Rainfall
global air circulation patterns and, 614, 614–616, 615
local topography and, 616, 616–617, 617
ocean currents and, 618, 618–619, 619
Weight loss, glycogen and, 57
Weinberg, Wilhelm, 335
Western grebe, mate selection in, 386, 387
Wetlands, 613, 613
Wilkins, Maurice, 180
Wilmut, Ian, 219
Wind, modern landscapes and, 617, 617
Woese, Carl, 432–433
World Wildlife Fund “Global 200,” 678
Worms, 456–459, 457, 458
X
X chromosomes, 260, 260–261, 261
single, Turner syndrome and, 268, 268
Xavante Indians, reproductive success of, 392, 392–393
x-axis, 24, 24
XXX females, 268, 269
XXY males, 268, 268–269
Y
Y chromosomes, 260, 260–261, 261
y-axis, 24, 24
Yeast infections, 547
Yellow dung fly, 258
Yellow honey mushroom fungus, 520–521, 521
Yellow-bellied marmots, mate selection in, 387
Yellowstone Park, 678
Yosemite Park, 678, 678
Yucatán Peninsula, asteroid crashing into, 430, 431
Z
Zebra, 415
Zebra mussels, 665, 665–666
Zygomycota, 519
Zygotes, 412
I-10