A prokaryotic cell possesses a simple structure, with no nuclear envelope and usually a single, circular chromosome. A eukaryotic cell possesses a more-complex structure, with a nucleus and multiple linear chromosomes consisting of DNA complexed to histone proteins.
Cell reproduction requires the copying of genetic material, separation of the copies, and cell division.
In a prokaryotic cell, the single chromosome replicates, each copy moves toward opposite sides of the cell, and the cell divides. In eukaryotic cells, reproduction is more complex than in prokaryotic cells, requiring mitosis and meiosis to ensure that a complete set of genetic information is transferred to each new cell.
In eukaryotic cells, chromosomes are typically found in homologous pairs. Each functional chromosome consists of a centromere, telomeres, and multiple origins of replication. After a chromosome has been copied, the two copies remain attached at the centromere, forming sister chromatids.
The cell cycle consists of the stages through which a eukaryotic cell passes between cell divisions. It consists of (1) interphase, in which the cell grows and prepares for division, and (2) the M phase, in which nuclear and cell division take place. The M phase consists of (1) mitosis, the process of nuclear division, and (2) cytokinesis, the division of the cytoplasm.
Progression through the cell cycle is controlled at checkpoints that regulate the cell cycle by allowing or prohibiting the cell to proceed to the next stage.
Mitosis usually results in the production of two genetically identical cells.
Sexual reproduction produces genetically variable progeny and allows for accelerated evolution. It includes meiosis, in which haploid sex cells are produced, and fertilization, the fusion of sex cells. Meiosis includes two cell divisions. In meiosis I, crossing over takes place and homologous chromosomes separate. In meiosis II, chromatids separate.
The usual result of meiosis is the production of four haploid cells that are genetically variable. Genetic variation in meiosis is produced by crossing over and by the random distribution of maternal and paternal chromosomes.
Cohesin holds sister chromatids together. In metaphase of mitosis and in metaphase II of meiosis, the breakdown of cohesin allows sister chromatids to separate. In meiosis I, centromeric cohesin remains intact and keeps sister chromatids together so that homologous chromosomes, but not sister chromatids, separate in anaphase I.
In animals, a diploid spermatogonium undergoes meiosis to produce four haploid sperm cells. A diploid oogonium undergoes meiosis to produce one large haploid ovum and one or more smaller polar bodies.
In plants, a diploid microsporocyte in the stamen undergoes meiosis to produce four pollen grains, each with two haploid sperm cells. In the ovary, a diploid megasporocyte undergoes meiosis to produce eight haploid nuclei, one of which forms the egg. During pollination, one sperm fertilizes the egg cell and the other fuses with two haploid nuclei to form a 3n endosperm.