farming in which crops are grown deliberately for cash rather than solely as food for the farm family

growing economically useful crops of trees on farms, in conjunction with the usual plants and crops, to reduce dependence on trees from nonfarmed forests and to provide income to the farmer

economic development projects designed to provide sustainable livelihoods in rural and urban areas; these often use simple technology that requires minimal or no investment in imported materials

removing the labia and the clitoris and sometimes stitching the vulva nearly shut

an economy in which the population is divided by economic disparities into two groups, one prosperous and the other near or below the poverty level

economic dependence on exports of raw materials

the deliberate intensification of divisions and conflicts by potential rulers; in the case of sub-Saharan Africa, by European colonial powers

a belief system in which spirits, including those of the deceased, are thought to exist everywhere and to offer protection to those who pay their respects

the removal and storage of carbon taken from the atmosphere

raw materials that are traded, usually to other countries, for processing or manufacturing into more valuable goods

a system of laws mandating racial segregation. South Africa was an apartheid state from 1948 until 1994

the deliberate destruction of an ethnic, racial, or political group

farming that involves raising a diverse array of crops and animals on a single farm, often to take advantage of several environmental riches

farming that provides food for only the farmer’s family and is usually done on small farms

small-scale development in rural areas that is focused on developing local skills, creating local jobs, producing products or services for local consumption, and maintaining local control so that participants retain a sense of ownership over the process

a way of life based on herding; practiced primarily on savannas, on desert margins, and in the mixture of grass and shrubs called open bush

a language of trade

a productive system of agriculture in which small plots are cleared in forestlands, the dried brush is burned to release nutrients, and the clearings are planted with multiple species; each plot is used for only 2 or 3 years and then abandoned for many years of regrowth

the triangular peninsula that juts out from northeastern Africa below the Red Sea and wraps around the Arabian Peninsula

the practice of having multiple wives

a band of arid grassland, where steppe and savanna grasses grow, that runs east-west along the southern edge of the Sahara

water naturally stored in aquifers as many as 5000 years ago during wetter climate conditions

a band of atmospheric currents that circle the globe roughly at the equator; warm winds from both north and south converge at the ITCZ, pushing air upward and causing copious rainfall