Leadership is the ability to direct or influence others’ behaviors and thoughts toward a productive end.
Researchers have identified five types of power.
Legitimate power comes from an individual’s role or title.
Coercive power stems from a person’s ability to threaten or harm others.
Reward power derives from an individual’s capacity to provide rewards.
Expert power comes from the information or knowledge that a leader possesses.
Referent power stems from the admiration, respect, or affection that followers have for a leader.
Leaders generally draw on more than one type of power, and leadership is often shared by group members who divide the power and take control of specific tasks.
There are five general leadership styles, and the best leaders know how to adapt these styles when necessary.
A directive leader controls the group’s communication by conveying specific instructions to members, which helps them understand expectations.
A supportive leader attends to group members’ emotional and relational needs, which can be helpful if members are frustrated.
A participative leader views group members as equals, welcomes their opinions, summarizes points that have been raised, and identifies problems that need discussion rather than dictating solutions.
A laissez-faire leader gives up some degree of power or control and gives that power to team members.
An achievement-oriented leader sets challenging goals and communicates high expectations and standards to members.
Some leaders have unique qualities that enable them to effect change on a larger scale.
Visionary leaders are able to picture a new or different reality from what currently exists and consider the bigger, long-range picture of the group’s or organization’s future.
Charisma, or an engaging personality and dynamic speaking style, can make a leader effective. Charismatic leaders are vibrant, likable communicators who generate a positive image among their followers.
Initiative and energy are needed to makes change a real possibility. Transformative leaders see change, adaptation, and growth as the means for groups and organizations to survive.
Leaders must behave competently and ethically.
Bullying consists of attempts to manipulate group members through such behaviors as harsh criticism, name-calling, gossip, slander, personal attacks, threats, offensive gestures, or sarcasm.
Machiavellianism is named for sixteenth-century philosopher Niccolo Machiavelli, who advised rulers to use deceit, flattery, and other exploitative measures strategically to achieve their desired ends.
Machiavellian leaders in groups may have some success in exerting power and control, but at a cost: they are less liked and have less credibility.
Ask Yourself:
What kind of leader would you generally identify yourself with? Why?
What are some unethical ways in which leaders behave?
Culture affects group leadership.
Gender differences may stem from organizational norms more than from differences between the sexes.
Masculine leaders tend to view organizations as pyramids, with a leader at the top.
Feminine leaders think of organizations as webs of relationships, with leaders at the center of the web. They see fluidity between work and personal life and may communicate their understanding of employees’ need to balance professional and personal obligations.
Leaders from high-context cultures tend to communicate indirectly, relying on team members to come up with particular solutions, whereas those from low-context tend to be more direct and would likely dictate orders or impose solutions.
Group members with high power distance (the extent to which less powerful members of a group accept that power is distributed unequally) automatically defer to those with higher status, such as leaders, whereas those with low power distance would be likely to offer their opinions freely.
Ask Yourself:
Based on your knowledge from previous chapters, how might leaders need to mitigate intercultural differences in groups?
Do you believe there are gender differences in leadership? Do you think they are inherent, or do they depend on how the organization or group operates?
Leaders influence decision making in groups.
Groupthink is a problem in which group members strive to maintain cohesiveness and minimize conflict by refusing to critically examine ideas, analyze proposals, or test solutions. Groupthink has several symptoms.
Participants reach outward consensus and avoid expressing disagreement so as not to hurt each other’s feelings or appear disloyal.
Members who do express disagreement with the majority are pressured to conform to the majority view.
Tough questions are ignored or discouraged.
Members spend more effort justifying their decisions than testing them.
There are three primary forces that shape a group’s decisions.
Cognitive forces are group members’ thoughts and beliefs.
Psychological forces are group members’ personal motives, emotions, attitudes, and values.
Social forces are group standards for behavior that influence decision making.
Leaders can help steer the problem-solving process, which includes six steps.
Identify the problem.
Analyze the problem.
Generate solutions, possibly using brainstorming, which encourages members of a group to come up with as many ideas as possible without judging the merits of those ideas.
Evaluate and choose a solution.
Implement the solution.
Assess the results.
Ask Yourself:
Have you experienced groupthink in a group setting? Did it have a negative impact on the group’s decision making?
How might differences in cognitive, psychological, and social forces among group members impact the style of leadership that would be best in a particular group?
Can you think of a situation in which poor leadership resulted in a job not being completed? How might these problem-solving steps have helped?
Strong leadership is important to run effective and appropriate meetings.
Leaders can enhance group meetings by planning effectively.
Justify the meeting by considering what needs to be accomplished and determining if a meeting is needed in the first place.
Clarify the goals of the meeting and the roles of the participants.
Set an agenda—an outline detailing the subject and goal of the meeting as well as the logistics and schedule—to keep the meeting on track.
Leaders must effectively manage the discussion in ways that help the group communicate while remaining focused on the meeting’s goal. Keeping some steps in mind can help.
Arrive prepared, with goals in mind and a firm grasp on the background information you’ll need.
Keep an eye on the time, perhaps imposing time limits or using a nonbinding straw poll (an informal vote on a decision) to keep things moving along.
Keep the group focused and create and implement a policy regarding proper etiquette and behavior during its meetings.
Manage conflict productively to reach better decisions. Making decisions by consensus—group solidarity in sentiment, belief, or decision—is often a better approach than making decisions by majority vote.
Summarize the information in the meeting periodically.
Follow up with each group member after the meeting.
The use of technology in meetings can lead to both positive and negative outcomes.
Technology (such as teleconferencing and videoconferencing) allows group members to participate in meetings without traveling, but can also lead to the inclusion of group members who do not necessarily need to attend a given meeting.
Face-to-face meetings are best performed initially and for tasks that require negotiation, but virtual teams are best for brainstorming.
Ask Yourself:
Do you enjoy meetings? Why or not?
Have you ever been in a technologically mediated meeting? How did the technology help? How did it hinder?
By assessing how well the group makes decisions, achieves its goals, and solves problems, a group can identify and address areas needing improvement. A good leader helps facilitate this process by looking at several aspects of a group’s performance.
Informational considerations
Does the group require all its members?
Does it know when it needs more data?
Does it analyze problems well, come up with creative solutions, and offer opinions respectfully?
Does it elaborate on problems, concerns, and solutions?
Procedural effectiveness
How well does the group coordinate its activities and communication?
How well does it manage problems?
Interpersonal performance
Do group members provide positive reinforcement for one another?
Do they feel a sense of solidarity?
Do they cooperate freely?
Do they demonstrate respect for one another?
Individual performance
An important assessment you can make is about yourself and the predispositions you bring to the group.
Grouphate is the extent to which you detest (or otherwise feel negatively about) working in groups. To assess grouphate, ask members questions about the degree to which they like or dislike working in groups.
Ask Yourself:
Can you think of a situation in which these tips might have helped you assess and guide a group you were leading?
Why might understanding how a group interacts help in redirecting the group?