Ecology: The Economy of Nature
Brief Contents
Detailed Contents
About the Authors
Preface
Searching for Life at the Bottom of the Ocean
Ecological systems exist in a hierarchy of organization
Ecological systems are governed by physical and biological principles
Different organisms play diverse roles in ecological systems
Scientists use several approaches to studying ecology
Humans influence ecological systems
SUMMARY OF CHAPTER CONCEPTS
REVIEW QUESTIONS
The Evolution of Whales
Water has many properties favorable to life
Animals and plants face the challenge of water and salt balance
The uptake of gases from water is limited by diffusion
Temperature limits the occurrence of aquatic life
SUMMARY OF CHAPTER CONCEPTS
REVIEW QUESTIONS
GRAPHING THE DATA: DETERMINING Q₁₀ VALUES IN SALMON
The Evolution of Camels
Most terrestrial plants obtain nutrients and water from the soil
Sunlight provides the energy for photosynthesis
Terrestrial environments pose a challenge for animals to balance water, salt, and nitrogen
Adaptations to different temperatures allow terrestrial life to exist around the planet
SUMMARY OF CHAPTER CONCEPTS
REVIEW QUESTIONS
GRAPHING THE DATA: RELATING MASS TO SURFACE AREA AND VOLUME
The Fine‑Tuned Phenotypes of Frogs
Ecological systems and processes vary in time and space
Environmental variation favors the evolution of variable phenotypes
Many organisms have evolved adaptations to variation in enemies, competitors, and mates
Many organisms have evolved adaptations to variable abiotic conditions
Migration, storage, and dormancy are strategies to survive extreme environmental variation
Variation in food quality and quantity is the basis of optimal foraging theory
SUMMARY OF CHAPTER CONCEPTS
REVIEW QUESTIONS
GRAPHING THE DATA: THE FORAGING BEHAVIOR OF AMERICAN ROBINS
Where Does Your Garden Grow?
Earth is warmed by the greenhouse effect
There is an unequal heating of Earth by the Sun
The unequal heating of Earth drives air currents in the atmosphere
Ocean currents also affect the distribution of climates
Smaller-scale geographic features can affect regional and local climates
Climate and the underlying bedrock interact to create a diversity of soils
SUMMARY OF CHAPTER CONCEPTS
REVIEW QUESTIONS
GRAPHING THE DATA: PRECIPITATION IN MEXICO CITY, QUITO, AND LA PAZ
The World of Wine
Terrestrial biomes are categorized by their major plant growth forms
There are nine categories of terrestrial biomes
Aquatic biomes are categorized by their flow, depth, and salinity
SUMMARY OF CHAPTER CONCEPTS
REVIEW QUESTIONS
GRAPHING THE DATA: CREATING A CLIMATE DIAGRAM
Darwin’s Finches
The process of evolution depends on genetic variation
Evolution can occur through random processes or through selection
Microevolution operates at the population level
Macroevolution operates at the species level and higher levels of taxonomic organization
SUMMARY OF CHAPTER CONCEPTS
REVIEW QUESTIONS
GRAPHING THE DATA: NATURAL SELECTION ON FINCH BEAKS
Live, Breed, and Die
Life history traits represent the schedule of an organism’s life
Life history traits are shaped by trade-offs
Organisms differ in the number of times that they reproduce, but they eventually become senescent
Life histories are sensitive to environmental conditions
SUMMARY OF CHAPTER CONCEPTS
REVIEW QUESTIONS
GRAPHING THE DATA: LIZARD OFFSPRING NUMBER VERSUS OFFSPRING MASS
The Sex Life of Honeybees
Reproduction can be sexual or asexual
Organisms can evolve as separate sexes or as hermaphrodites
Sex ratios of offspring are typically balanced, but they can be modified by natural selection
Mating systems describe the pattern of mating between males and females
Sexual selection favors traits that facilitate reproduction
SUMMARY OF CHAPTER CONCEPTS
REVIEW QUESTIONS
GRAPHING THE DATA: FREQUENCY-DEPENDENT SELECTION
The Life of a Fungus Farmer
Living in groups has costs and benefits
There are many types of social interactions
Eusocial species take social interactions to the extreme
SUMMARY OF CHAPTER CONCEPTS
REVIEW QUESTIONS
GRAPHING THE DATA: HOW LIVING IN GROUPS AFFECTS PREDATION RISK
Bringing Back the Mountain Boomer
The distribution of populations is limited to ecologically suitable habitats
Population distributions have five important characteristics
The distribution properties of populations can be estimated
Population abundance and density are related to geographic range and adult body size
Dispersal is essential to colonizing new areas
Many populations live in distinct patches of habitat
SUMMARY OF CHAPTER CONCEPTS
REVIEW QUESTIONS
GRAPHING THE DATA: AN IDEAL FREE DISTRIBUTION
The Human Population Explosion
Under ideal conditions, populations can grow rapidly
Populations have growth limits
Population growth rate is influenced by the proportions of individuals in different age, size, and life history classes
SUMMARY OF CHAPTER CONCEPTS
REVIEW QUESTIONS
GRAPHING THE DATA: SURVIVORSHIP CURVES
Monitoring Moose in Michigan
Populations fluctuate naturally over time
Density dependence with time delays can cause populations to be inherently cyclic
Chance events can cause small populations to go extinct
Metapopulations are composed of subpopulations that can experience independent population dynamics across space
SUMMARY OF CHAPTER CONCEPTS
REVIEW QUESTIONS
GRAPHING THE DATA: EXPLORING THE EQUILIBRIUM OF THE BASIC METAPOPULATION MODEL
A Century-long Mystery of the Lynx and the Hare
Predators and herbivores can limit the abundance of populations
Populations of consumers and consumed populations fluctuate in regular cycles
Predation and herbivory favor the evolution of defenses
SUMMARY OF CHAPTER CONCEPTS
REVIEW QUESTIONS
GRAPHING THE DATA: THE FUNCTIONAL RESPONSE OF WOLVES
The Life of Zombies
Many different types of parasites affect the abundance of host species
Parasite and host dynamics are determined by the parasite’s ability to infect the host
Parasite and host populations commonly fluctuate in regular cycles
Parasites have evolved offensive strategies while hosts have evolved defensive strategies
SUMMARY OF CHAPTER CONCEPTS
REVIEW QUESTIONS
GRAPHING THE DATA: TIME SERIES DATA
The Complexity of Competition
Competition occurs when individuals experience limited resources
The theory of competition is an extension of logistic growth models
The outcome of competition can be altered by abiotic conditions, disturbances, and interactions with other species
Competition can occur through exploitation or direct interference, or it may be apparent competition
SUMMARY OF CHAPTER CONCEPTS
REVIEW QUESTIONS
GRAPHING THE DATA: COMPETITION FOR A SHARED RESOURCE
Living with Crabs
Mutualisms can improve the acquisition of water, nutrients, and places to live
Mutualisms can aid in defense against enemies
Mutualisms can facilitate pollination and seed dispersal
Mutualisms can change when conditions change
Mutualisms can affect communities
SUMMARY OF CHAPTER CONCEPTS
REVIEW QUESTIONS
GRAPHING THE DATA: ECOSYSTEM FUNCTION OF FUNGI
A Web of Interactions in Social Spiders
Communities can have distinct or gradual boundaries
The diversity of a community incorporates both the number and relative abundance of species
Species diversity is affected by resources, habitat diversity, keystone species, and disturbance
Communities are organized into food webs
Communities respond to disturbances with resistance, with resilience, or by switching among alternative stable states
SUMMARY OF CHAPTER CONCEPTS
REVIEW QUESTIONS
GRAPHING THE DATA: LOG-NORMAL DISTRIBUTIONS AND RANK-ABUNDANCE CURVES
Retreating Glaciers in Alaska
Succession occurs in a community when species replace each other over time
Succession can occur through different mechanisms
Succession does not always produce a single climax community
SUMMARY OF CHAPTER CONCEPTS
REVIEW QUESTIONS
GRAPHING THE DATA: SPECIES RICHNESS AT GLACIER BAY
Worming Your Way into an Ecosystem
Primary productivity provides energy to the ecosystem
Net primary productivity differs among ecosystems
The movement of energy depends on the efficiency of energy flow
SUMMARY OF CHAPTER CONCEPTS
REVIEW QUESTIONS
GRAPHING THE DATA: NPP VERSUS THE TOTAL PRIMARY PRODUCTIVITY OF ECOSYSTEMS
Living in a Dead Zone
The hydrologic cycle moves many elements through ecosystems
The carbon cycle is closely tied to the movement of energy
Nitrogen cycles through ecosystems in many different forms
The phosphorus cycle moves between land and water
In terrestrial ecosystems, most nutrients regenerate in the soil
In aquatic ecosystems, most nutrients regenerate in the sediments
SUMMARY OF CHAPTER CONCEPTS
REVIEW QUESTIONS
GRAPHING THE DATA: THE DECOMPOSITION OF ORGANIC MATTER
The Magnificent Biodiversity of the Cape Floristic Region
Landscape ecology examines ecological patterns and processes at large spatial scales
The number of species increases with area
The equilibrium theory of island biogeography incorporates both area and isolation
On a global scale, biodiversity is highest near the equator and declines toward the poles
The distribution of species around the world is affected by Earth’s history
SUMMARY OF CHAPTER CONCEPTS
REVIEW QUESTIONS
GRAPHING THE DATA: SPECIES ACCUMULATION CURVES
Protecting Hotspots of Biodiversity
The value of biodiversity arises from social, economic, and ecological considerations
Although extinction is a natural process, its current rate is unprecedented
Human activities are causing the loss of biodiversity
Conservation efforts can slow or reverse declines in biodiversity
SUMMARY OF CHAPTER CONCEPTS
REVIEW QUESTIONS
GRAPHING THE DATA: STACKED BAR GRAPHS
Scientists use graphs to present data and ideas
Student′s T-Test Distribution Table
Chi-Square (ᵪ²) Distribution Table
Z-Distribution Table
Answers to “Analyzing Ecology” and “Graphing the Data”
Suggested Readings
Glossary
Index