7. The War for America, 1775

Quebec, New York, and New Jersey

In late 1775, an American expedition was launched to capture the cities of Montreal and Quebec before British reinforcements could arrive (Map 7.1). This offensive was a clear sign that the war was not purely a reaction to the invasion of Massachusetts. A force of New York Continentals commanded by General Richard Montgomery took Montreal easily in September 1775 and then advanced on Quebec. Meanwhile, a second contingent of Continentals led by Colonel Benedict Arnold moved north through Maine to Quebec, a punishing trek through freezing rain with woefully inadequate supplies. Arnold showed heroic determination, but close to half of his men either died or turned back during the march. Arnold and Montgomery jointly attacked Quebec in December but failed to take the city. Worse yet, they encountered smallpox, which killed more men than had the battle for Quebec.

MAP ACTIVITYMap 7.1 The War in the North, 1775–1778 After battles in Massachusetts in 1775, rebel forces invaded Canada but failed to capture Quebec. The British army landed in New York in 1776, causing turmoil in New Jersey in 1777 and 1778. Burgoyne attempted to isolate New England, but he was stopped at Saratoga in 1777 in the decisive battle of the early war.READING THE MAP: Which general’s troops traveled the farthest in each of these years: 1775, 1776, and 1777? How did the availability of water routes affect British and American strategy?CONNECTIONS: Why did the French wait until early 1778 to join American forces against the British? What did France hope to gain from participating in the war? (See “The French Alliance.”)

The main action of the first year of the war came not in Canada, however, but in New York. In August 1776, some 45,000 British troops (including 8,000 German mercenaries, called Hessians) under the command of General Howe landed south of New York City. General Washington had anticipated this move and had relocated his army of 20,000 south from Massachusetts. The battle of Long Island in late August pitted the well-trained British “redcoats” (slang referring to their red uniforms) against a very green Continental army. Howe attacked, inflicting many casualties and taking 1,000 prisoners. A British general crowed, “If a good bleeding can bring those Bible-faced Yankees to their senses, the fever of independency should soon abate.” Howe failed to press forward, however, perhaps remembering the costly victory of Bunker Hill, and Washington evacuated his troops to Manhattan Island.

Washington knew it would be hard to hold Manhattan, so he withdrew farther north to two forts on either side of the Hudson River. For two months, the armies engaged in limited skirmishing, but in November Howe finally captured Fort Washington and Fort Lee, taking another 3,000 prisoners. Washington retreated quickly across New Jersey into Pennsylvania. Again Howe unaccountably failed to press his advantage. Instead, he parked his German troops in winter quarters along the Delaware River. Perhaps he knew that many of the Continental soldiers’ enlistment periods ended on December 31, making him confident that the Americans would not attack him. He was wrong.

VISUAL ACTIVITYBritish General Sir William Howe William Howe served as commander in chief in America from 1775 to 1778. A prior deployment during the Seven Years’ War gave him warm respect for the New England colonists; he never stopped hoping for reconciliation. He won limited battles but declined to pursue decisive victories. He issued thousands of pardons to individual rebels. Resigning before being fired, he traveled home to defend his reputation.READING THE IMAGE: What marks Howe as an officer in this picture? What has the artist chosen for the location of the portrait? Is the cannon pointed at his head?CONNECTIONS: What difference did it make for the outcome of the Revolution that Britain’s commander in chief was so hesitant?

Anne S. K. Brown Military Collection, Brown University.

On December 25, in an icy rain, Washington stealthily moved his army across the Delaware River and at dawn made a quick capture of the unsuspecting German soldiers. This impressive victory lifted the sagging morale of the patriot side. For the next two weeks, Washington remained on the offensive, capturing supplies in a clever attack on British units at Princeton. Soon he was safe in Morristown, in northern New Jersey, where he settled his army for the winter. Washington finally had time to administer mass smallpox inoculations and see his men through the abbreviated course of the disease.

All in all, in the first year of declared war, the rebellious Americans had a few proud moments but also many worries. The inexperienced Continental army had barely hung on in the New York campaign. Washington had shown exceptional daring and admirable restraint, but what really saved the Americans was the repeated reluctance of the British to follow through militarily when they had the advantage.

REVIEW Why did the British initially exercise restraint in their efforts to defeat the rebellious colonies?

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