INTRODUCTION TO ENVIRONMENTAL, SCIENCE, AND INFORMATION LITERACY

CHAPTER 1 ENVIRONMENTAL LITERACY AND THE GOAL OF SUSTAINABILITY

ON THE ROAD TO COLLAPSE

What lessons can we learn from a vanished Viking society?

Environmental science is all encompassing.

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1.1   Environmental Science Is Highly Interdisciplinary

1.2   Different Approaches to Science Have Different Goals and Outcomes

1.3   Wicked Problems

The Greenland Vikings’ demise was caused by natural events and human choices.

Responding to environmental problems and working with neighbors help a society cope with changes.

Humans are an environmental force that impacts Earth’s ecosystems.

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1.4   Many Environmental Problems Can be Traced to Three Underlying Causes

Ecosystems are naturally sustainable and a good model for human societies hoping to become more sustainable.

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1.5   Four Characteristics of a Sustainable Ecosystem

1.6   Sustainable Ecosystems Can be a Useful Model for Human Societies

Humanity faces some challenges in dealing with environmental issues.

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1.7   Social Traps

1.8   Wealth Inequality

1.9   Worldviews and Environmental Ethics

1.10   U.S. Environmental History

CHAPTER 2 SCIENCE LITERACY AND THE PROCESS OF SCIENCE

SCIENCE AND THE SKY

Solving the mystery of disappearing ozone

Science gives us tools to observe and make sense of the natural world.

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2.1   The Atmosphere and UV Radiation

Scientific views rarely change overnight.

The scientific method systematically rules out explanations.

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2.2   Ozone Depletion and CFC Levels

2.3   Scientific Process

2.4   Certainty in Science

Different types of studies amass a body of evidence.

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2.5   The Chemistry of Ozone Formation and Breakdown

2.6   How Do Scientists Collect Evidence to Answer Questions?

Multiple ozone depletion hypotheses were tested but only the CFC hypothesis was confirmed.

The international community got together to meet the problem head on.

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2.7   The Montreal Protocol and Its Amendments Have Been Effective

CHAPTER 3 INFORMATION LITERACY AND TOXICOLOGY

TOXIC BOTTLES?

On the trail of chemicals in our everyday lives

We live in an environment full of toxic substances.

Regulation happens even in the face of change.

Information sources vary in their reliability.

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3.1   Information Sources

What are the dangers presented by toxics, and how do we determine safe exposure levels?

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3.2   Bioaccumulation and Biomagnification

3.3   BPA Studies

3.4   Factors That Affect Toxicity

Endocrine disruptors cause big problems at small doses.

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3.5   How Hormones Work

3.6   Dose-Response Curves

Critical thinking gives us the tools to uncover logical fallacies in arguments or claims.

TABLE

3.1   Common Logical Fallacies

Risk assessments help determine safe exposure levels.

HUMANS POPULATIONS AND ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH

CHAPTER 4 HUMAN POPULATIONS

ONE-CHILD CHINA GROWS UP

A country faces the outcomes of radical population control

Human populations grew slowly at first and then at a much faster rate in recent years.

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4.1   Human Population Through History

4.2   Population Distribution

4.3   Age Structure Affects Future Population Growth

Fertility rates are affected by a variety of factors.

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4.4   We Live In Two Demographic Worlds

Factors that decrease the death rate can also decrease overall population growth rates.

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4.5   Demographic Transition

4.6   Declining Population Growth Rates

4.7   Reaching Zero Population Growth

The age and gender composition of a population affects more than just its potential for growth.

Carrying capacity: Is zero population growth enough?

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4.8   How Many People Can Earth Support?

What awaits China’s generation of Little Emperors?

CHAPTER 5 ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH

ERADICATING A PARASITIC NIGHTMARE

Human health is intricately linked to the environment

Human manipulation of the environment can increase our exposure to pathogens.

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5.1   Types of Environmental Hazards

Public health programs seek to improve community health.

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5.2   Public Health Problems Seek to Improve Health of the Population as a Whole

5.3   Environmental Factors Contribute to the Global Burden of Disease

5.4   A Variety of Pathogens Cause Disease

Addressing biological hazards requires environmental and behavioral changes.

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5.5   Guinea Worm Infection and Eradication Programs

The factors that affect human health differ significantly between more and less developed nations.

Environmentally mediated diseases can be mitigated with funding, support, and education.

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5.6   Death Rates and Leading Causes of Death Differ Among Nations

TABLE

5.1   Reducing Environmental Health Hazards

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5.7   Eradicating Guinea Worm Disease

CONSUMPTION AND THE ENVIRONMENTAL FOOTPRINT

CHAPTER 6 ECOLOGICAL ECONOMICS AND CONSUMPTION

WALL TO WALL, CRADLE TO CRADLE

A leading carpet company takes a chance on going green

Businesses and individuals impact the environment with their economic decisions.

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6.1   Value of Ecosystem Services

6.2   Ecological Footprint

6.3   Capital and Interest

6.4   The IPAT Equation

Mainstream economics supports some actions that are not sustainable.

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6.5   True Cost Accounting

6.6   Economic Models

6.7   Cradle-to-Cradle Management

Businesses can learn a great deal about how to be sustainable from nature.

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6.8   Product Versus Service Economy

There are many tactics for achieving sustainability

CHAPTER 7 MANAGING SOLID WASTE

A PLASTIC SURF

Are the oceans teeming with trash?

Waste is a uniquely human invention, generated by uniquely human activities.

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7.1   U.S. Municipal Solid Waste Stream

How big is the Atlantic Garbage Patch, and is it growing?

How we handle waste determines where it ends up.

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7.2   Municipal Solid Waste Disposal

7.3   How It Works: An Incinerator

Solid waste pollution threatens all living things.

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7.4   Plastic Trash Affects Wildlife

Some waste is hazardous and needs to be handled carefully.

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7.5   Household Hazardous Wastes

When it comes to managing waste, the best solutions mimic nature.

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7.6   Composting

Life-cycle analysis and better design can help reduce waste.

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7.7   Industrial Ecology

Consumers have a role to play, too.

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7.8   The Four Rs Help You Reduce Waste

ECOLOGY

CHAPTER 8 ECOSYSTEMS AND NUTRIENT CYCLING

ENGINEERING EARTH

An ambitious attempt to replicate Earth’s life support systems falls short

Organisms and their habitats form complex systems.

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8.1   Organization of Life: From Biosphere to Individual

8.2   Habitat and Niche

8.3   Earth Is a Closed System for Matter but Not for Energy

8.4   Global Terrestrial Biomes

8.5   Map of Biosphere 2

Living things survive within a specific range of environmental conditions.

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8.6   Range of Tolerance for Life

Nutrients such as carbon cycle through ecosystems.

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8.7   Carbon Cycles via Photosynthesis and Cellular Respiration

8.8   The Carbon Cycle

8.9   The Nitrogen Cycle

8.10   The Phosphorus Cycle

Ecosystems are irreplaceable, but learning how they function will help us restore degraded ones.

CHAPTER 9 POPULATION ECOLOGY

THE WOLF WATCHERS

Endangered gray wolves return to the American West

Populations fluctuate in size and have varied distributions.

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9.1   Population Distribution Patterns

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Populations display various patterns of growth.

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9.2   Exponential Growth Occurs When There Are No Limits to Growth

9.3   Logistic Population Growth

A variety of factors affect population growth.

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9.4   Density-Dependent and Density-Independent Factors Affect Population Size

9.5   Life History Strategies

9.6   Some Populations Fluctuate in Size Over Time

The loss of the wolf emphasized the importance of an ecosystem’s top predator.

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9.7   Top-Down and Bottom-Up Regulation

CHAPTER 10 COMMUNITY ECOLOGY

WHAT THE STORK SAYS

A bird species in the Everglades reveals the intricacies of a threatened ecosystem

The well-being of a species depends on the health of its ecosystem.

Human alterations have changed the face of the Everglades.

Matter and energy move through a community via the food web.

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10.1   Everglades Food Web

10.2   Trophic Pyramid

Communities, such as the ones found in the Everglades, are shaped by biotic and abiotic factors.

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10.3   Species Diversity Includes Richness and Evenness

10.4   Mangrove Edges

10.5   Edge Effects

Changing community structure changes community composition

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10.6   Keystone Species Support Entire Ecosystems

Species interactions are extremely important for community viability.

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10.7   Species Interactions

Ecologists and engineers help repair ecosystems.

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10.8   The Comprehensive Everglades Restoration Plan

Community composition changes over time as the physical features of the ecosystem itself change.

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10.9   Ecological Succession

EVOLUTION AND BIODIVERSITY

CHAPTER 11 EVOLUTION AND EXTINCTION

A TROPICAL MURDER MYSTERY

Finding the missing birds of Guam

Natural selection is the main mechanism by which populations adapt and evolve.

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11.1   Natural Selection at Work

Populations need genetic diversity to evolve.

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11.2   Evolution in Action

11.3   Coevolution Allows Populations to Adapt to Each Other

11.4   Endangered and Extinct Birds of Guam

Populations can diverge into subpopulations or new species.

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11.5   Random Events Can Alter Populations

The pace of evolution is generally slow but is responsive to selective pressures.

Extinction is normal, but the rate at which it is currently occurring appears to be increasing.

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11.6   Earth’s Mass Extinctions

Humans affect evolution in a number of ways.

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11.7   Humans Use Artificial Selection to Produce Plants or Animals with Desired Traits

TABLE

11.1   Common Misconceptions about Evolution

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CHAPTER 12 BIODIVERSITY

PALM PLANET

Can we have tropical forests and our palm oil too?

Biodiversity provides a wide range of essential goods and services.

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12.1   Biodiversity on Earth

12.2   Ecosystem Services

Biodiversity includes variety at the individual, species, and ecosystem levels.

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12.3   Biodiversity Includes Genetic, Species, and Ecosystem Diversity

12.4   Biodiversity Hotspots

Endemism increases with isolation, as does extinction risk.

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12.5   Isolation Can Affect Populations

Biodiversity faces several serious threats.

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12.6   Palm Oil Plantations Are Nothing Like Natural Tropical Forests

12.7   Global Forest Change

Sustainable palm oil may protect biodiversity.

TABLE

12.1   Protecting Biodiversity Requires a Consideration of Economic Goals and Environmental Needs

CHAPTER 13 PRESERVING BIODIVERSITY

A FOREST WITHOUT ELEPHANTS Can we save one of Earth’s iconic species?

Human impact is the main threat to species worldwide.

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13.1   The Main Threats to Biodiversity Today Come from Humans

13.2   Conservation Designations

Human impact that threatens the forest elephant also puts its entire ecosystem at risk.

There are multiple approaches to species conservation.

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13.3   Single Species Conservation Approach

13.4   Species Conservation: An Ecosystem Approach

13.5   Tracking Poachers by Using Conservation Genetics

Legally mandated protection can aid in species conservation.

TABLE

13.1   Legal Protection for Species

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13.6   Global Protected Areas

Conservation plans should consider the needs of local human communities.

TABLE

13.2   Many Routes to Conservation

WATER RESOURCES

CHAPTER 14 FRESHWATER RESOURCES

TOILET TO TAP

A California county is tapping controversial sources for drinking water

Water is one of the most ubiquitous, yet scarce, resources on Earth.

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14.1   Distribution of Water on Earth

14.2   The Water Cycle

14.3   Global Water Use and Access

Like communities around the world, California depends on many sources of water.

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14.4   Groundwater Is Found in Aquifers of Porous Rock or Permeable Soil

Untreated wastewater can contaminate freshwater sources and is a serious health risk worldwide.

Solving water shortages is not easy.

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14.5   How it Works: Wastewater Treatment

Conservation is an important “source” of water.

TABLE

14.1   Water-Saving Technologies and Actions

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14.6   Reducing Our Water Footprint

CHAPTER 15 WATER POLLUTION

INTO THE GULF

Researchers try to pin down what’s choking the Gulf of Mexico

Different types of water pollution degrade water quality.

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15.1   Major Causes of Water Pollution

15.2   Eutrophication Can Create Dead Zones

The source of pollution can be hard to pinpoint.

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15.3   Watersheds

Addressing eutrophication begins in the farm field.

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15.4   Addressing the Problem of Fertilizer Runoff

Watershed management is the key to reducing hypoxic zones.

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15.5   Healthy Riparian Areas Provide Many Benefits

15.6   Increasing Infiltration of Stormwater

15.7   Gulf of Mexico Regional Ecosystem Restoration

FOOD RESOURCES

CHAPTER 16 FEEDING THE WORLD

A GENE REVOLUTION

Can genetically engineered food help end hunger?

World hunger and malnutrition are decreasing but are still unacceptably high.

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16.1   World Hunger

16.2   Malnutrition

Agricultural advances significantly increased food production in the 20th century.

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16.3   The Perks and Problems of Industrial Agriculture and the Green Revolution

The next Green Revolution may be a “gene” revolution.

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16.4   Making a Genetically Modified Organism

TABLE

16.1   Examples of GMOs

Concerns about GMOs trigger strong debate.

It will take a combination of strategies to achieve global food security.

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16.5   The Trade-Offs of GMOs

16.6   Low-Tech Farming Methods Can Also Help Address Food Insecurity

CHAPTER 17 SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE: RAISING CROPS

FARMING LIKE AN ECOSYSTEM

Creative solutions to feeding the world

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17.1   Sustainable Agriculture

Modern industrial farming has advantages and disadvantages.

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17.2   The Use of Fertilizer Comes with Trade-Offs

17.3   Emergence of Pesticide-Resistant Pests

Mimicking natural ecosystems can make farms more productive and help address some environmental problems.

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17.4   Agroecology: The Duck/Rice Farm

Sustainable techniques can control pests, protect soil, and keep farm productivity high.

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17.5   Integrated Pest Management (IPM)

17.6   Sustainable Soil Management Practices

Consumers also have a role to play in helping to bring about a sustainable food system.

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17.7   Consumer Choices Matter

A sustainable food future will depend on a variety of methods.

TABLE

17.1   The Advantages and Disadvantages of Sustainable Agriculture

Can sustainable farming methods feed the world?

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CONVENTIONAL ENERGY: FOSSIL FUELS

CHAPTER 18 COAL

BRINGING DOWN THE MOUNTAIN

In the rubble, the true costs of coal

The world depends on coal for most of its electricity production.

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18.1   How it Works: Electricity Production from Coal

Coal forms over millions of years.

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18.2   Coal Formation

18.3   Major Coal Deposits of the World

Mining comes with a set of serious trade-offs.

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18.4   Mountaintop Removal

18.5   Subsurface Mining

Surface mining brings severe environmental impacts.

Can coal’s emissions be cleaned up?

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18.6   Environmental and Health Problems of Mining and Burning Coal

18.7   How it Works: Carbon Capture and Sequestration (CCS)

Reclaiming a closed mining site helps repair the area but can never re-create the original ecosystem.

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18.8   Mine Site Reclamation

CHAPTER 19 OIL AND NATURAL GAS

THE BAKKEN OIL BOOM

Is fracking the path to energy independence?

Fossil fuels are a valuable, but nonrenewable, resource.

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19.1   How Oil and Natural Gas Fossil Fuels Form

Oil is a limited resource.

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19.2   Proven Oil and Natural Gas Reserves

19.3   Peak Oil

Conventional oil and natural gas reserves are tapped by drilling wells.

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19.4   How it Works: Conventional Oil and Natural Gas Wells

19.5   Processing Crude Oil

Fossil fuel extraction and use comes at a high environmental cost.

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19.6   Environmental Costs of Oil

Energy producers are turning to unconventional reserves of oil and natural gas.

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19.7   Fracking for Natural Gas or Oil

19.8   Unconventional Oil and Natural Gas Reserves in the United States and Canada

Pursuing unconventional reserves comes with a high environmental cost.

Is fracking the answer to our energy needs?

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19.9   The Trade-Offs of Fracking

Oil consumption drives extraction.

AIR POLLUTION: CONSEQUENCES OF USING FOSSIL FUELS

CHAPTER 20 AIR POLLUTION

THE YOUNGEST SCIENTISTS

Kids on the frontlines of asthma research

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20.1   Air Pollution Is a Worldwide Problem

There are many different types of outdoor air pollution.

Air pollution is responsible for myriad health and environmental problems.

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20.2   Outdoor Air Pollution

20.3   The Harvard Six Cities Study Linked Air Pollution to Health Problems

Outdoor air pollution has many sources.

TABLE

20.1   Sources and Effects of Air Pollutants

The air we breathe affects our lungs, especially those of children.

Traveling pollution has far-reaching impacts.

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20.4   Acid Deposition

Indoor air pollution is also a significant health threat.

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20.5   Sources of Indoor Air Pollution

We have several options for addressing air pollution.

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20.6   Approaches to Reducing Air Pollution

CHAPTER 21 CLIMATE CHANGE

WHEN THE TREES LEAVE

Scientists grapple with a shifting climate

Climate is not the same thing as weather.

Evidence of global climate change abounds.

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21.1   A Change in Average Temperature: Why Do Only a Few Degrees Matter?

21.2   Evidence for Climate Change

A variety of factors affect climate.

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21.3   The Greenhouse Effect

21.4   Albedo Changes Can Increase Warming via Positive Feedback

21.5   Climate Forcers

21.6   Milankovich Cycles Help Explain Past Climate Change

21.7   Direct and Indirect Measurements of Temperature and CO₂

Current climate change has both human and natural causes.

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21.8   What’s Causing the Warming?

Some tree species are already migrating north, but it doesn’t mean they will survive.

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21.9   Species’ Responses

Climate change has environmental, economic, and health consequences.

Confronting climate change is challenging.

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21.10   Future Climate Change Depends on Our Current and Future Actions

21.11   Current and Potential Climate Change Impacts and Adaptation Strategies

ALTERNATIVES TO FOSSIL FUELS

CHAPTER 22 NUCLEAR POWER

THE FUTURE OF FUKUSHIMA

Can nuclear energy overcome its bad rep?

The heat of nuclear reactions can be harnessed to produce electricity.

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22.1   Atoms and Isotopes

22.2   Radioactive Decay

22.3   Nuclear Fuel Production

22.4   Nuclear Fission Reaction

Nuclear energy has a troubled history.

Nuclear accidents can be devastating.

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22.5   How it Works: Nuclear Reactors

22.6   Radioactive Isotopes Can Release One or More of Three Different Kinds of Radiation

The generation of nuclear waste is a particularly difficult problem to address.

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22.7   Radioactive Waste

Responding to a nuclear accident is difficult and dangerous work.

The impacts of nuclear accidents can be far reaching.

Will nuclear play a role in future energy?

TABLE

22.1   Nuclear Power: Trade-Offs

The future of nuclear energy is uncertain.

CHAPTER 23 SUN, WIND, WATER, AND EARTH ENERGY

FUELED BY THE SUN

A tiny island makes big strides with renewable energy

Sustainable ecosystems and societies rely on renewable energy.

To become sustainable, Samsø turned to one of its most plentiful natural resources.

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23.1   Renewable Energy Use

23.2   How it Works: Wind Turbines

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The most abundant sustainable energy source is the one that powers the planet—the Sun.

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23.3   Solar Energy Technologies Take Many Forms

Energy that causes volcanos to erupt and warms hot springs can also heat our homes.

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23.4   Geothermal Energy Can Be Harnessed in a Variety of Ways

The power of water can be harnessed but comes with Trade-Offs

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23.5   Harnessing the Power of Water

The true cost of various energy technologies can be difficult to estimate.

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23.1   The Trade-Offs of Renewable Energy Sources

Conservation plays a vital role in a sustainable energy society.

TABLE

23.2   Saving Energy

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23.6   Energy Efficiency

23.7   Samsø: The Energy-Positive Island

SUSTAINABLE LIVING IN COMMUNITY

CHAPTER 24 ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY

In the global efforts to thwart climate change, some lessons are learned after the fact

Public policies aim to improve life in societies.

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24.1   Addressing Transboundary Environmental Problems Requires International Cooperation

24.2   Policy Decision Making—The NEPA Process

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24.1   Notable U.S. Environmental Laws

Policy making involves many players.

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24.3   Influences on U.S. Environmental Policy Decision Making

A variety of policy tools are being used to address climate change.

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24.4   Policy Tools

24.5   Setting International Policies

24.6   International Efforts to Address Global Climate Issues

Policies sometimes have unintended consequences.

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24.7   Emission Trends

24.8   A Carbon Crediting System Gets Sidetracked

Adapting policies is necessary but difficult.

CHAPTER 25 URBANIZATION AND SUSTAINABLE COMMUNITIES

THE GHETTO GOES GREEN

Building a better backyard in the Bronx

More people live in cities than ever before.

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25.1   Urbanization and the Growth of Megacities

25.2   Many Urban Areas Have Lower Per Capita Ecological Footprints than Average

TABLE

25.1   Trade-Offs of Urbanization

Suburban sprawl consumes open space and wastes resources.

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25.3   Urban Flight Contributes to Suburban Sprawl

25.4   Suburban Sprawl

Environmental justice requires engaged citizens.

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25.5   Green Cities

The future depends on making large cities sustainable.

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25.6   Sustainable Cities and Smart Growth

25.7   Green Building