CAA. See Clean Air Act

CAFE standards. See corporate average fuel efficiency standards

CAFO. See concentrated animal feeding operation

California

Arcata, 268, 270f

Los Angeles, 382, 382f, 383

San Francisco, 503f

water sources in, 264–266

wind farms, 454

Canada

oil in, 379

unconventional reserves of oil and natural

gas in, 373f

Canada lynx, 169, 169f

cancer

BPA and, 56

skin, 33, 36

Canis lupus. See wolves

Canis lupus familiaris. See dogs

cap-and-trade, 397, 398f, 472, 479

capital, natural, 102, 104f

captive breeding programs, 245

carbon, 149

carbon capture and sequestration (CCS), 353, 354f

carbon cycles

in Biosphere 2, 150–151

cellular respiration and, 150f

disrupted, 151

human impact on, 151, 151f

photosynthesis and, 150f

carbon dioxide (CO₂), 150, 150f, 390

climate change and, 413f

elevated, 155

emissions, 416, 484f

greenhouse effect and, 410

Kyoto Protocol and regulation of, 483

measurements of, 415

regulation of, 395–396

carbon emissions, 425

carbon footprint, 425

of food, 332, 333f

in urban areas, 496f

carbon gas regulation, 473

carbon monoxide (CO), 390t

carbon taxes, 422

The Carnivore’s Way (Eisenberg), 171

carrying capacity, 10, 166f

changing, 166

definition, 11, 165

Earth’s, 75–76, 76f

overshoot, 169f

zero population growth and, 75–77

car-share programs, 115

Carson, Rachel, 44f

Silent Spring, 19, 45

Carter, Jimmy, 91

Carter, Majora, 492, 497, 500–501, 501f

Bronx Environmental Stewardship Training, 504

Smart Roofs, LLC, 506

SSBx, 502

Carter Center’s Guinea Worm Eradication Program, 82

cash crops, 305

Casiccia, Claudio, 33

cause-and-effect relationship, definition, 28

cause of death, 92f

CBD. See Convention on Biological Diversity

CCS. See carbon capture and sequestration

CDM. See Clean Development Mechanism

cellular respiration, 150

carbon cycles and, 150f

The Central and Southern Florida Project, 180

CERCLA. See Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act

CERP. See Comprehensive Everglades Restoration Plan

Cervus elaphus. See elk

CFCs. See chlorofluorocarbons

CFL. See compact fluorescent light bulb

Chaetodipus intermedius. See rock pocket mouse

Chase, James, 504

chemical hazards, 84, 85f

chemicals. See also toxic substances

in cosmetics, 61

daily exposure to, 59

dose-response curve, 54

fat-soluble, 48

interactions, 52

persistent, 44–45

residues of, 61

water-soluble, 48

chemical spills, surface mining-related, 350

chemical waste, 127

Chernobyl reactor meltdown, 437

Chesapeake Bay, 283f, 289

China, 62f

age structure, 73

CDM program in, 486

coolant factories in, 485

cultural shift in, 71

demographic transition in, 72

energy consumption by, 375

one child policy, 62–79

overconsumption in, 76

population, 65

population growth, 66, 67f

resource consumption by, 117f

workforce, 73

Chipotle Mexican Grill, 115f

chlorine (CI)

atmospheric, 26

ozone and, 30

chlorine monoxide (CIO), 30

NO_x and, 35

ozone and, 41f

chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), 26–28

alternatives to, 37, 41

in atmosphere, 28

ban on, 36

greenhouse effect and, 410

Montreal Protocol and, 36

ozone depletion and, 28f, 32–35

cholera, 84, 88f, 89f

chromium, e–waste and, 129

CI. See chlorine

CIO. See chlorine monoxide

CITES. See Convention on International

Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora

cities. See also specific cities

green, 509

smart growth of, 504–505

sustainable, 502–507, 503f, 509

citizen scientist opportunities, 254t

citizen suit provision, 475

the clean 15, 333f

Clean Air Act (CAA), 394–395, 476t

clean coal technology, 352–354, 398

Clean Development Mechanism (CDM), 472

development of, 482

emission credits, 485f

repairing, 486

wind farm, 477f

Clean Power Plan, 396

clean water, 93t, 95

access to, 263, 277

Clean Water Act (CWA), 289, 476t

reclamation and, 356

climate

definition, 405

factors affecting, 407–416

forcers, 413–414

predicting, 416

weather compared with, 404–405, 416

climate change, 7, 242f, 402–427

adaptations, 424–425

agriculture and, 320

in Antarctica, 407

anthropogenic, 10

in Arctic, 407

average temperature changes and, 406, 406f

benefits of, 421

biodiversity and, 424

causes of current, 416–417, 417f

choices influencing, 425

climate forcers and, 414

CO₂ and, 413f

confronting, 421–425

current, 405, 416–417

definition, 405

economic impacts of, 419–421

environmental impact of, 419–421

evidence of global, 405–409

feedback loops influencing, 414

forest fires and, 402f, 404

future, 423

global efforts to thwart, 470–489

Greenland Vikings and, 7–8

health impacts of, 419–421, 424

human causes of, 416–417

impacts of, 424

international efforts and, 482f

Milankovitch cycles and, 414

mitigation, 421–423

natural causes of, 416–417

North Woods, Minnesota, and, 405–406, 424–425

oceans and, 412–414

past, 405, 414

skeptics of, 422, 427

species’ responses to, 417–419

treaties, 422, 424

tree species migration and, 417–419, 425

climate models, 414, 416–417

climax species, 195

closed-loop system, 108, 108f, 109, 135

clumped distribution, 162, 163f

CO. See carbon monoxide

CO₂. See carbon dioxide

coal, 338–359, 343f

in Appalachian Mountains, 344

burning, 352f

clean coal technology, 352–354, 398

definition, 341

deposits, 344, 345f

electricity generated by, 341–342, 342f

emissions, 350–355

formation of, 343–344, 344f

global dependence on, 341–343

mercury emissions and, 350–351

coal mining. See also mountaintop removal

environmental and health problems of, 352f

EPA and, 359

fatalities associated with, 359f

hazards of, 347f

Hobet 21, 340–341, 344

reclaiming closed mines and, 355–357, 355f

Spruce No. 1, 340f

subsurface mines, 346, 347f, 348

surface, 346, 348–350

trade-offs of, 344–348

coastal erosion and flooding, 424

coevolution, 205, 206f

coliform bacteria, 266

Collapse (Diamond), 6

Collor de Mello, Fernando, 481f

colonizing space, 146

Columbia River, Grand Coulee Dam on, 460–461, 464f

command and control regulation, 394, 478

definition, 395, 479

commensalism, 190, 190f

community, 142, 142f

definition, 143

health of, public health programs and, 84–88

human, conservation and, 252–255

sustainable, 490–509

community ecology, 176–197

abiotic factors and, 183–186

biotic factors and, 183–186

composition of, 186–189

definition, 179

species interaction and, 189–190

structure of, 186–189

compact fluorescent light bulb (CFL), 465, 466f

competition, 189–190, 190f

composting, 130, 131f, 155

Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA), 476t

Comprehensive Everglades Restoration Plan (CERP), 191

concentrated animal feeding operation (CAFO), 320

problems with, 323

concentrations, measurements and units of measure, A–3

Concrete Plant Park, 493f

condensation, 262–263

conservation

consumer choices and, 254, 254t

ecosystem, 244–246

of elephants, 238–255

energy, 465–466, 465t

human communities and, 252–255

landscape, 246

routes to, 254t

single-species, 244–245

of species, 244–252, 247f

sustainable energy and, 464–466

water, 272–275, 272t

conservation biology, 241

conservation easements, 254t, 502

conservation genetics, 247–248

tracking poachers with, 248f

consumer choices, 115

conservation and, 254, 254t

in food, 333f, 335

four Rs and, 133

sustainable agriculture and, 332

consumers, 181

definition, 150, 180

trophic levels, 182

waste and, 132–135

consumption, 98–117

electricity, 357

of energy, 375–376

of oil, 375–377

resource, 117f

sustainable, 109, 112–113

continental crust, A–13

contour farming, 328, 331

control group, 33

controlled burns, 385f

control rods, 435

conventionally grown crops, organic

compared with, 337

conventional reserves of oil and natural gas, 364

well drilling for, 365–367, 366f

Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), 249, 249t

Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES), 249–250, 249t

ivory trade and, 250

Conway, Erik, 422

coolant factories, 472, 475, 486

in China, 485

in India, 483, 485

Kyoto Protocol and, 484–485

Copenhagen, Denmark, 503f

core, Earth’s, A–12

core species, 186

corporate average fuel efficiency (CAFE)

standards, 484

correlation, 28

Corwith Cramer, 120–135

cosmetics, chemicals in, 61

cost. See also environmental costs; external cost; true cost

of asthma, 398

of food, 300

health, 107f

internal, 105

Costanza, Robert, 101, 223

cover crops, 328, 331

cradle-to-cradle management, 109, 110f

criteria air pollutants, 386–387

critical thinking, 55–57

crop diversity, 319, 323, 337

monoculture and, 320

crop productivity, 424

crop rotation, 330, 331

crops

annual, 334

Bt, 308–310

cash, 305

conventionally grown, 337

GM, 305–309

organic, 337

perennial, 334

cross-pollination, GM crops and, 309

crude birth rate, 64, 65

crude bitumen, 372

crude death rate, 64, 65

crude oil, 364

processing of, 366–367, 367f

crust, Earth’s, A–12, A–13

cultural eutrophication, 282, 320–321

Curitiba, Brazil, 503f

Cuyahoga River, 289, 294f

CWA. See Clean Water Act