101.4 Contents

Preface xix

THE REAL WORLD The Perils of Procrastination 4

Psychology’s Roots: The Path to a Science of Mind 5

Psychology’s Ancestors: The Great Philosophers 5

From the Brain to the Mind: The French Connection 6

Structuralism: Applying Methods from Physiology to Psychology 7

Titchener Brings Structuralism to the United States 9

James and the Functional Approach 10

THE REAL WORLD Improving Study Skills 10

The Development of Clinical Psychology 13

The Path to Freud and Psychoanalytic Theory 13

Influence of Psychoanalysis and the Humanistic Response 15

The Search for Objective Measurement: Behaviorism Takes Center Stage 16

Watson and the Emergence of Behaviorism 16

OTHER VOICES Is Psychology a Science? 17

B. F. Skinner and the Development of Behaviorism 18

Return of the Mind: Psychology Expands 20

The Pioneers of Cognitive Psychology 20

Technology and the Development of Cognitive Psychology 22

The Brain Meets the Mind: The Rise of Cognitive Neuroscience 24

The Adaptive Mind: The Emergence of Evolutionary Psychology 25

Beyond the Individual: Social and Cultural Perspectives 27

The Development of Social Psychology 27

The Emergence of Cultural Psychology 28

CULTURE & COMMUNITY Analytic and Holistic Styles in Western and Eastern Cultures 30

The Profession of Psychology: Past and Present 31

Psychologists Band Together: The American Psychological Association 31

What Psychologists Do: Research Careers 32

HOT SCIENCE Psychology as a Hub Science 34

Empiricism: How to Know Stuff 40

The Scientific Method 40

The Art of Looking 42

Observation: Discovering What People Do 43

Measurement 43

CULTURE & COMMUNITY Best Place to Fall on Your Face 45

Descriptions 47

Explanation: Discovering Why People Do What They Do 51

Correlation 51

Causation 54

THE REAL WORLD Oddsly Enough 61

Drawing Conclusions 62

HOT SCIENCE Do Violent Movies Make Peaceful Streets? 64

Thinking Critically about Evidence 66

The Ethics of Science: First, Do No Harm 70

Respecting People 70

Respecting Animals 72

Respecting Truth 73

OTHER VOICES Can We Afford Science? 75

Neurons: The Origin of Behavior 80

Components of the Neuron 80

Major Types of Neurons 82

Neurons Specialized by Location 83

The Electrochemical Actions of Neurons: Information Processing 84

Electric Signaling: Conducting Information within a Neuron 84

Chemical Signaling: Transmission between Neurons 87

The Organization of the Nervous System 92

Divisions of the Nervous System 92

Components of the Central Nervous System 94

Structure of the Brain 95

The Hindbrain 96

The Midbrain 96

The Forebrain 97

Brain Plasticity 103

THE REAL WORLD Brain Plasticity and Sensations in Phantom Limbs 104

The Development and Evolution of Nervous Systems 106

Prenatal Development of the Central Nervous System 106

Evolutionary Development of the Central Nervous System 107

Genes, Epigenetics, and the Environment 108

HOT SCIENCE Epigenetics and the Persisting Effects of Early Experiences 112

Investigating the Brain 114

Studying the Damaged Brain 114

Studying the Brain’s Electrical Activity 118

Using Brain Imaging to Study Structure and to Watch the Brain in Action 119

THE REAL WORLD Brain Death and the Vegetative State 123

OTHER VOICES Neuromyths 124

Sensation and Perception Are Distinct Activities 130

Psychophysics 131

Measuring Thresholds 132

Signal Detection 133

THE REAL WORLD Multitasking 135

Sensory Adaptation 135

Vision I: How the Eyes and the Brain Convert Light Waves to Neural Signals…. 136

Sensing Light 137

Perceiving Color 140

The Visual Brain 142

Vision II: Recognizing What We Perceive 145

Attention: The “Glue” That Binds Individual Features into a Whole 145

Recognizing Objects by Sight 147

Perceiving Depth and Size 150

Perceiving Motion and Change 153

CULTURE & COMMUNITY Does Culture Influence Change Blindness? 156

Audition: More Than Meets the Ear 157

Sensing Sound 157

The Human Ear 158

Perceiving Pitch 160

Localizing Sound Sources 161

Hearing Loss 161

THE REAL WORLD Music Training: Worth the Time 162

The Body Senses: More Than Skin Deep 163

Touch 163

Pain 164

Body Position, Movement, and Balance 166

The Chemical Senses: Adding Flavor 167

Smell 167

HOT SCIENCE Taste: From the Top Down 169

Taste 170

OTHER VOICES Hallucinations and the Visual System 173

Conscious and Unconscious: The Mind’s Eye, Open and Closed 178

The Mysteries of Consciousness 178

The Nature of Consciousness 181

HOT SCIENCE The Mind Wanders 185

The Unconscious Mind 189

Sleep and Dreaming: Good Night, Mind 193

Sleep 193

Dreams 199

CULTURE & COMMUNITY What Do Dreams Mean to Us around the World? 201

Drugs and Consciousness: Artificial Inspiration 204

Drug Use and Abuse 204

Types of Psychoactive Drugs 207

THE REAL WORLD Drugs and the Regulation of Consciousness 212

Hypnosis: Open to Suggestion 214

Induction and Susceptibility 214

Hypnotic Effects 214

OTHER VOICES A Judge’s Plea for Pot 217

Encoding: Transforming Perceptions Into Memories 223

Semantic Encoding 223

Visual Imagery Encoding 224

Organizational Encoding 225

Encoding of Survival-Related Information 226

Storage: Maintaining Memories over Time 228

Sensory Storage 228

Short-Term Storage and Working Memory 229

Long-Term Storage 230

HOT SCIENCE Sleep on It 233

Memories, Neurons, and Synapses 234

Retrieval: Bringing Memories to Mind 236

Retrieval Cues: Reinstating the Past 236

Consequences of Retrieval 237

Separating the Components of Retrieval 239

CULTURE & COMMUNITY Does Culture Affect Childhood Amnesia? 240

Multiple Forms of Memory: How the Past Returns 241

Explicit and Implicit Memory 242

Semantic and Episodic Memory 244

THE REAL WORLD Is Google Hurting our Memories? 248

Memory Failures: The Seven Sins of Memory 249

1. Transience 249

2. Absentmindedness 250

3. Blocking 252

4. Memory Misattribution 252

5. Suggestibility 255

6. Bias 256

7. Persistence 257

Are the Seven Sins Vices or Virtues? 259

OTHER VOICES Early Memories 261

Classical Conditioning: One Thing Leads to Another 267

The Development of Classical Conditioning: Pavlov’s Experiments 267

The Basic Principles of Classical Conditioning 268

THE REAL WORLD Understanding Drug Overdoses 270

Conditioned Emotional Responses: The Case of Little Albert 272

A Deeper Understanding of Classical Conditioning 273

Operant Conditioning: Reinforcements from the Environment 277

The Development of Operant Conditioning: The Law of Effect 277

B. F. Skinner: The Role of Reinforcement and Punishment 278

CULTURE & COMMUNITY Are There Cultural Differences in Reinforcers? 281

The Basic Principles of Operant Conditioning 282

A Deeper Understanding of Operant Conditioning 288

HOT SCIENCE Dopamine and Reward Learning in Parkinson’s Disease 292

Observational Learning: Look at Me 295

Observational Learning in Humans 295

Observational Learning in Animals 297

Neural Elements of Observational Learning 299

Implicit Learning: Under the Wires 300

Cognitive Approaches to Implicit Learning 301

Implicit and Explicit Learning Use Distinct Neural Pathways 303

Learning in the Classroom 304

Techniques for Learning 304

Testing Aids Attention 306

Control of Learning 307

OTHER VOICES Online Learning 308

Emotional Experience: The Feeling Machine 314

What Is Emotion? 314

The Emotional Body 316

The Emotional Brain 319

The Regulation of Emotion 320

Emotional Communication: Msgs w/o Wrds 322

Communicative Expression 323

HOT SCIENCE The Body of Evidence 325

Deceptive Expression 326

CULTURE & COMMUNITY Is It What You Say or How You Say It? 329

Motivation: Getting Moved 330

The Function of Emotion 330

Instincts and Drives 323

What the Body Wants 333

THE REAL WORLD Jeet Jet? 337

OTHER VOICES Fat and Happy 339

What the Mind Wants 342

Language and Communication: From Rules to Meaning 352

The Complex Structure of Human Language 353

Language Development 355

Theories of Language Development 359

Language Development and the Brain 362

Broca’s Area and Wernicke’s Area of the Brain 362

Involvement of the Right Cerebral Hemisphere 363

Bilingualism and the Brain 363

OTHER VOICES Americans’ Future Has to Be Bilingual 364

Can Other Species Learn Human Language? 365

Language and Thought: How Are They Related? 367

Language and Color Processing 367

Language and the Concept of Time 368

Concepts and Categories: How We Think 369

Psychological Theories of Concepts and Categories 369

Concepts, Categories, and the Brain 371

Decision Making: Rational and Otherwise 374

The Rational Ideal 374

The Irrational Reality 374

CULTURE & COMMUNITY Does Culture Influence Optimism Bias? 378

Why Do We Make Decision-Making Errors? 378

Decision Making and the Brain 380

Problem Solving: Working It Out 382

Means—Ends Analysis 382

Analogical Problem Solving 383

Creativity and Insight 384

HOT SCIENCE Sudden Insight and the Brain 386

Transforming Information: How We Reach Conclusions 388

Practical, Theoretical, and Syllogistic Reasoning 388

THE REAL WORLD From Zippers to Political Extremism: An Illusion of Understanding 390

Reasoning and the Brain 391

How Can Intelligence Be Measured? 396

The Intelligence Quotient 397

The Intelligence Test 398

THE REAL WORLD Look Smart 400

What Is Intelligence? 401

A Hierarchy of Abilities 401

The Middle-Level Abilities 403

Where Does Intelligence Come From? 407

Genetic Influences on Intelligence 407

Environmental Influences on Intelligence 411

HOT SCIENCE Dumb and Dumber? 414

Genes and Environments 415

Who Is Most Intelligent? 416

Individual Differences in Intelligence 416

Group Differences in Intelligence 417

Improving Intelligence 420

OTHER VOICES How Science Can Build a Better You 421

Prenatality: A Womb with a View 426

Prenatal Development 427

Prenatal Environment 428

OTHER VOICES Men, Who Needs Them? 429

Infancy and Childhood: Becoming a Person 431

Perceptual and Motor Development 431

Cognitive Development 433

HOT SCIENCE A Statistician in the Crib 435

THE REAL WORLD Walk This Way 442

Social Development 442

Moral Development 446

Adolescence: Minding the Gap 451

The Protraction of Adolescence 453

Sexuality 455

Parents and Peers 458

Adulthood: Change We Can’t Believe In 460

Changing Abilities 460

HOT SCIENCE The End of History Illusion 460

Changing Goals 463

Changing Roles 465

OTHER VOICES You Are Going to Die 467

Personality: What It Is and How It Is Measured 472

Describing and Explaining Personality 472

Measuring Personality 473

The Trait Approach: Identifying Patterns of Behavior 476

Traits as Behavioral Dispositions and Motives 476

The Search for Core Traits 477

HOT SCIENCE Personality on the Surface 479

Traits as Biological Building Blocks 480

THE REAL WORLD Are There “Male” and “Female” Personalities? 481

The Psychodynamic Approach: Forces That Lie beneath Awareness 484

The Structure of the Mind: Id, Ego, and Superego 485

Psychosexual Stages and the Development of Personality 487

The Humanistic-Existential Approach: Personality as a Choice 488

Human Needs and Self-Actualization 488

Personality as Existence 489

The Social-Cognitive Approach: Personalities in Situation 490

Consistency of Personality across Situations 491

Personal Constructs 491

CULTURE & COMMUNITY Does Your Personality Change According to which Language You’re Speaking? 492

Personal Goals and Expectancies 493

The Self: Personality in the Mirror 494

Self-Concept 495

Self-Esteem 498

OTHER VOICES Does the Study of Personality Lack … Personality? 503

Social Behavior: Interacting with People 508

Survival: The Struggle for Resources 508

HOT SCIENCE Mouse Over 516

Reproduction: The Quest for Immortality 517

THE REAL WORLD Making the Move 519

Divorce: When the Costs Outweigh the Benefits 525

Social Influence: Controlling People 526

The Hedonic Motive: Pleasure Is Better Than Pain 527

CULTURE & COMMUNITY Free Parking 528

The Approval Motive: Acceptance Is Better Than Rejection 528

OTHER VOICES 91% of All Students Read This Box and Love It 531

The Accuracy Motive: Right Is Better Than Wrong 533

Social Cognition: Understanding People 537

HOT SCIENCE The Wedding Planner 538

Stereotyping: Drawing Inferences from Categories 538

Attribution: Drawing Inferences from Actions 543

Sources of Stress: What Gets to You 550

Stressful Events 550

Chronic Stressors 551

HOT SCIENCE Can Discrimination Cause Stress and Illness? 552

Perceived Control over Stressful Events 553

Stress Reactions: All Shook Up 553

Physical Reactions 554

Psychological Reactions 558

Stress Management: Dealing with It 561

Mind Management 561

Body Management 563

Situation Management 565

CULTURE & COMMUNITY Land of the Free, Home of the … Stressed? 566

The Psychology of Illness: Mind over Matter 568

Psychological Effects of Illness 569

Recognizing Illness and Seeking Treatment 569

THE REAL WORLD This Is Your Brain on Placebos 571

Somatic Symptom Disorders 572

On Being a Patient 572

Patient—Practitioner Interaction 573

The Psychology of Health: Feeling Good 574

Personality and Health 574

Health-Promoting Behaviors and Self-Regulation 576

OTHER VOICES Freedom to Be Unhealthy? 579

Defining Mental Disorders: What Is Abnormal? 584

Conceptualizing Mental Disorders 585

Classifying Mental Disorders: The DSM 586

Causation of Disorders 587

CULTURE & COMMUNITY What Do Mental Disorders Look Like in Different Parts of the World? 589

A New Approach to Understanding Mental Disorders: RDoC 590

THE REAL WORLD How Are Mental Disorders Defined and Diagnosed? 592

Dangers of Labeling 592

Anxiety Disorders: When Fears Take Over 593

Phobic Disorders 594

Panic Disorder 595

Generalized Anxiety Disorder 596

Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder: Trapped in a Loop 598

Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: Troubles after a Trauma 599

Depressive and Bipolar Disorders: At the Mercy of Emotions 601

Depressive Disorders 601

Bipolar Disorder 604

Schizophrenia and Other Psychotic Disorders: Losing the Grasp on Reality 607

Symptoms and Types of Schizophrenia 607

Biological Factors 609

Psychological Factors 611

OTHER VOICES Successful and Schizophrenic 613

Disorders of Childhood and Adolescence 614

Autism Spectrum Disorder 614

HOT SCIENCE Optimal Outcome in Autism Spectrum Disorder 615

Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder 616

Conduct Disorder 616

Personality Disorders: Going to Extremes 618

Types of Personality Disorders 618

Antisocial Personality Disorder 619

Self-Harm Behaviors: When the Mind Turns against Itself 621

Suicidal Behavior 621

Nonsuicidal Self-Injury 622

Treatment: Getting Help to Those Who Need It 628

Why Many People Fail to Seek Treatment 629

THE REAL WORLD Types of Psychotherapists 630

Approaches to Treatment 631

CULTURE & COMMUNITY Treatment of Psychological Disorders around the World 632

Psychological Treatments: Healing the Mind through Interaction 633

Psychodynamic Therapy 633

Humanistic and Existential Therapies 636

Behavioral and Cognitive Therapies 637

HOT SCIENCE “Rebooting” Psychological Treatment 642

Group Treatments: Healing Multiple Minds at the Same Time 643

Medical and Biological Treatments: Healing the Mind by Physically Altering the Brain 646

Antipsychotic Medications 646

THE REAL WORLD Treating Severe Mental Disorders 647

Antianxiety Medications 649

Antidepressants and Mood Stabilizers 649

Herbal and Natural Products 651

Combining Medication and Psychotherapy 652

OTHER VOICES Diagnosis: Human 653

Biological Treatments Beyond Medication 654

Treatment Effectiveness: For Better or for Worse 656

Treatment Illusions 657

Treatment Studies 658

Which Treatments Work? 659

Glossary G-1

References R-1

Name Index NI-1

Subject Index SI-1