18.13 Chapter 13: Psychological Disorders

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1. a. dysfunction
2. maladaptive
3. Answers will vary (see TABLE 13.1). An atypical behavior that is not dysfunctional might be an adolescent who dyes his hair in many different shades of green. A dysfunctional behavior that is not distressful might be someone having difficulty getting out of bed in the morning because she stayed up late to meet a deadline for the next day. Deviant but not dysfunctional behaviors were demonstrated in 2011 by the Occupy Wall Street protesters who slept in public places and refused to move when asked to do so by the police during their protests.

1. b. the creation of labeling and expectations.
2. c. 50%
3. medical model
4. Answers will vary, but can be based on the following information (see Figure 13.1). The biopsychosocial perspective suggests that psychological disorders result from a complex interaction of factors: biological (for example, neurotransmitters, hormones), psychological (for example, thinking, coping, personality traits), and sociocultural (for example, media, cultural beliefs).

1. c. panic attacks.
2. classical conditioning; operant conditioning
3. Taijin kyofu tends to occur in collectivist societies, where great emphasis is placed on the surrounding people, which might lead individuals from these societies to become overly concerned about making someone else feel uncomfortable. Collectivist cultures value social harmony over individual needs, so if you cause someone to be uncomfortable, that is worse than personal humiliation you might feel. Western cultures are more individualistic. People from these societies are much more afraid of embarrassing themselves than they are of embarrassing someone else. They tend to value their own feelings over those of others.

1. d. compulsions.
2. genetic
3. Repeatedly locking the car temporarily reduced Melissa’s anxiety, making her more likely to perform this behavior in the future; thus, negative reinforcement promoted this maladaptive behavior. The therapist probably expected that if Melissa was not able to repeatedly check the locks and nothing bad happened, eventually Melissa would not need to continue locking her car repeatedly.

1. b. major depressive disorder
2. d. serotonin, norepinephrine, and dopamine
3. Answers will vary, but can be based on the following information. The symptoms of major depressive disorder can include feelings of sadness or hopelessness, reduced pleasure, sleeping excessively or not at all, loss of energy, feelings of worthlessness, or difficulties thinking or concentrating. The hallmarks of major depressive disorder are the “substantial” severity of symptoms and impairment in the ability to perform expected roles. Biological theories suggest the disorder results from a genetic predisposition, neurotransmitters, and hormones. Psychological theories suggest that feelings of learned helplessness and negative thinking may play a role. Not just one factor is involved in major depressive disorder, but rather the interplay of several.

1. b. manic episodes.
2. In order to be diagnosed with bipolar I disorder, a person must experience at least one manic episode spanning a week or more. These periods of mania are characterized by increased energy and activity and unusual excitement and/or irritability. Depression and hypomania may also occur.
   To be diagnosed with bipolar II disorder, a person must experience recurrent episodes of major depression lasting 2 or more weeks and at least one episode of hypomania spanning 4 or more days. Hypomania is a mild version of mania; the symptoms are similar, but not disabling.
3. A diagnosis of bipolar I disorder requires that a person experience at least one manic episode, substantial distress, and great impairment. Bipolar II disorder requires at least one major depressive episode as well as a hypomanic episode, which is associated with some of the same symptoms as a manic episode, but is not as severe and does not impair one’s ability to function. People with bipolar disorder cycle between extreme highs and lows of emotion and energy that last for days, weeks, or even months. Individuals with major depressive disorder, on the other hand, tend to experience a persistent low mood, loss of energy, and feelings of worthlessness.

1. psychosis
2. a. hallucination.

1. the self and interpersonal relationships.
2. borderline personality disorder
3. Answers will vary, but can be based on the following information (see TABLE 13.1). Distress is the degree to which behavior or emotions cause an individual to feel upset or uncomfortable. Impairment or dysfunction is the degree to which behavior interferes with daily life and relationships. Personality disorders are a group of psychological disorders that can include impairments in cognition, emotional responses, interpersonal functioning, and impulse control. Thus, they involve issues that can meet two of the criteria of abnormal behavior: dysfunction (they interfere with daily life and relationships) and deviance (behaviors often considered outside the standards of society).

1. Dissociation
2. a. Dissociative identity disorder
3. Answers will vary, but can be based on the following information. The commonality in this group of disorders is dissociation, or disturbance in the normally unified experience of psychological functions involved in memory, consciousness, perception, or identity. Dissociative identity disorder is a psychological disorder that involves the occurrence of two or more distinct personalities within one individual, whereas dissociative amnesia is a psychological disorder that includes a lack of ability to remember important personal information and memories. Both disorders interfere with relationships, memory, work, and other important areas of life.

1. dysfunction, distress, deviance
2. c. labels individuals, which only heightens problems with stigma.
3. a. obsessions; compulsions
4. b. biopsychosocial
5. b. agoraphobia
6. c. social anxiety disorder
7. c. panic attacks
8. b. antisocial personality disorder.
9. d. serotonin
10. a. at least one major depressive episode as well as a hypomanic episode.
11. c. problems associated with sleep.
12. d. irritability
13. b. psychosis.
14. a. borderline personality disorder
15. b. personalities
16. Answers will vary, but can be based on the following information. Dysfunction is the degree to which a behavior interferes with one’s life or ability to function (for example, washing one’s hands to the point of making them raw). Distress is feeling regularly upset or uncomfortable because of unwanted behaviors or emotions (for example, continually feeling sad and hopeless). Deviance is the degree to which a behavior is considered to be outside of the standards or rules of a society (for example, removing one’s clothes in inappropriate settings).
17. Answers will vary. This statement does not follow the suggestion of using “people-first language.” Instead, it is defining an individual by her disorder. People are much more than their diagnoses. The diagnosis does not describe who your friend is, but only what is causing her distress or discomfort.
18. Classical conditioning can play a role in the development of a panic disorder by pairing an initially neutral stimulus (for example, a mall) with an unexpected panic attack (the unconditioned stimulus). The panic attack location then becomes a conditioned stimulus. When the location is visited or even considered, a panic attack can ensue (now the conditioned response).
19. Cognitive therapist Aaron Beck suggested that depression is a product of a cognitive triad, which includes a negative view of experiences, self, and the future. Negative thinking may lead to self-defeating behaviors, which, in turn, reinforce the beliefs.
20. Answers will vary, but can be based on the following information. Schizophrenia is a complex psychological disorder that results from biological, psychological, and social factors. Because this disorder springs from a complex interaction of genes and environment, researchers have a hard time predicting who will be affected. The diathesis–stress model takes these factors into account, with diathesis referring to an inherited disposition (for example, to schizophrenia) and stress referring to the stressors in the environment (internal and external). Genes, neurotransmitters, differences in the brain, and exposure to a virus in utero are all possible biological factors. Neurotransmitters are also thought to play a role in schizophrenia. The dopamine hypothesis, for example, suggests that the synthesis, release, and concentrations of dopamine are all elevated in people who have been diagnosed with schizophrenia and are suffering from psychosis. There are several environmental triggers thought to be involved in one’s risk for developing the disorder as well as the severity of symptoms (for example, complications at birth, social stress, and cannabis abuse are related to a slightly increased risk of schizophrenia onset).