4

Summary of Concepts

LO 1     Define consciousness.

Consciousness is the state of being aware of oneself, one’s thoughts, and/or the environment. There are various levels of conscious awareness, including wakefulness, sleepiness, drug-induced states, dreaming, hypnotic states, and meditative states, to name a few.

LO 2     Explain how automatic processing relates to consciousness.

Because our sensory systems absorb large amounts of information, being consciously aware of all of it is not possible. Without our awareness, the brain determines what is important, what requires immediate attention, and what can be processed and stored for later use if necessary. This automatic processing happens involuntarily, with little or no conscious effort.

LO 3     Describe how we narrow our focus on specific stimuli to attend to them.

We have access to a great deal of information in our internal and external environments, but we can only focus our attention on a small portion of that information. This narrow focus on specific stimuli is referred to as selective attention. We are designed to pay attention to changes in environmental stimuli, to unfamiliar stimuli, and to especially strong stimuli.

LO 4     Identify how circadian rhythm relates to sleep.

Predictable daily patterns influence our behaviors, alertness, and activity levels in a cyclical fashion. These daily patterns in our physiological functioning roughly follow the 24-hour cycle of daylight and darkness, driven by our circadian rhythm. In the circadian rhythm for sleep and wakefulness, there are two times when the desire for sleep hits hardest. The first occurs in the early hours of the morning, between about 2:00 to 6:00 a.m., and the second, less intense desire for sleep strikes mid-afternoon, around 2:00 or 3:00 p.m.

LO 5     Summarize the stages of sleep.

Sleep begins in non-rapid eye movement (non-REM), or nondreaming sleep, which has four stages. The lightest stage of sleep is Stage 1; it is the time during which hallucinations, or imaginary sensations, can occur. This stage lasts only a few minutes before Stage 2 sleep begins. At this point, it is a little more difficult to rouse the sleeper before she drifts even further into Stage 3 sleep and then Stage 4 sleep, slow-wave sleep. Stage 4 is the deepest sleep. As the night progresses, the sleeper goes back to Stage 1 from Stage 4. And instead of waking up, the sleeper enters a 5th stage of sleep known as rapid eye movement (REM) sleep. During this stage, closed eyes dart around, and brain activity changes. People awakened from REM sleep often report having vivid dreams. Each cycle, from Stage 1 to REM, lasts about 90 minutes, and the average adult loops through five complete cycles per night. These cycles change in composition throughout the night.

LO 6     Recognize various sleep disorders and their symptoms.

Narcolepsy is a neurological disorder characterized by excessive daytime sleepiness and other sleep-related disturbances. REM sleep behavior disorder is a disorder of sleep in which the mechanism responsible for paralyzing the body during REM sleep does not function properly. The individual is able to move around and act out dreams. Obstructive sleep apnea hypopnea is a serious disturbance of non-REM sleep characterized by the periodic blockage of breathing. It results in the upper throat muscles going limp, allowing the airway to close. The sleeper awakens and gasps for air, then drifts back to sleep. Insomnia is the inability to fall asleep or stay asleep. People with insomnia report on the poor quantity or quality of their sleep, and some may complain about waking up too early and being unable to fall back to sleep.

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LO 7     Summarize the theories of why we dream.

Freud believed dreams have two levels of content. Manifest content, the apparent meaning of the dream, is the actual story line of the dream itself—what you remember when you wake up. Latent content contains the hidden meaning of the dream, which represents the unconscious conflicts and desires. The activation–synthesis model suggests that dreams have no meaning whatsoever: we respond to random neural activity of the brain during sleep as if it has meaning. Neurocognitive theory suggests there is a network of neurons in the brain necessary for dreaming to occur. According to this theory, dreams are the result of how sleep and consciousness have evolved in humans.

LO 8     Define psychoactive drugs.

Psychoactive drugs can cause changes in psychological activities such as sensation, perception, attention, judgment, memory, self-control, emotion, thinking, and behavior. These drugs alter consciousness in an untold number of ways. They can depress activity in the central nervous system, produce hallucinations, and cause a sense of euphoria.

LO 9     Identify several depressants and stimulants and know their effects.

Depressants decrease the activities in the central nervous system. These include barbiturates, opioids, and alcohol. Stimulants are drugs that increase neural activity in the central nervous system, producing effects such as heightened alertness and energy and an elevated mood. These include cocaine, amphetamines, methamphetamine, caffeine, and nicotine.

LO 10     Discuss some of the hallucinogens.

Hallucinogens are drugs that produce hallucinations, altered moods, and distorted perception and thought. The most well-known hallucinogen is lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD). This odorless, tasteless, and colorless substance often produces extreme changes in sensation and perception. In addition to the traditional hallucinogens, a number of “club drugs,” or synthetic “designer drugs,” are commonly used at parties, raves, and dance venues. The most popular is methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA), which is chemically similar to the stimulant methamphetamine, producing a combination of stimulant and hallucinogen effects. The most widely used illegal (in most states) drug is marijuana, and at high doses, tetrahydracannabinol (THC) can induce mild euphoria and create intense sensory experiences.

LO 11     Explain how physiological and psychological dependence differ.

With constant use of some psychoactive drugs, a condition can develop in which the body becomes dependent on the drug. Signs of this physiological dependence include tolerance and withdrawal. Psychological dependence occurs without the evidence of tolerance or withdrawal symptoms, but is indicated by many other problematic symptoms. People with psychological dependence believe they need the drug because it increases their emotional or mental well-being. Physiological dependence is physical and has serious physical consequences. Psychological dependence is associated with beliefs and emotions.

LO 12     Describe hypnosis and explain how it works.

Hypnosis is an altered state of consciousness that can create changes in perceptions and behaviors, usually resulting from suggestions made by a hypnotist. Hypnosis is known to ease pain associated with childbirth and surgery, and can reduce the need for painkillers. One theory suggests that hypnotized people experience a “split” in awareness or consciousness. Others suggest hypnosis is a role-playing exercise.

key terms

activation-synthesis model

alpha waves

amphetamines

automatic processing

barbiturate

beta waves

circadian rhythm

consciousness

delirium tremens (DTs)

delta waves

depressants

hallucinogens

hypnosis

insomnia

latent content

lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD)

manifest content

methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA)

narcolepsy

nightmares

non-rapid eye movement (non-REM)

obstructive sleep apnea hypopnea

opiates

opioids

physiological dependence

psychoactive drugs

psychological dependence

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rapid eye movement (REM)

REM rebound

REM sleep behavior disorder

selective attention

sleep terrors

stimulants

tetrahydracannabinol (THC)

theta waves

tolerance

withdrawal

TEST PREP  are you ready?

Question

1. William James was interested in studying ________, which he described as a “stream” that provides day-to-day continuity.

A.
B.
C.
D.

d. consciousness

Question

2. A great deal of information is available in our internal and external environments, but we can only focus on a small portion of it. This narrow focus on specific stimuli is known as:

A.
B.
C.
D.

b. selective attention.

Question

3. ________ refers to the ability to block out the chatter and noise in a busy environment so that you can pay attention to your ongoing conversation with someone.

A.
B.
C.
D.

a. The cocktail-party effect

Question

4. The daily patterns of our physiological functioning, such as our temperature, roughly follow the 24-hour cycle of daylight and darkness. This pattern is driven by our:

A.
B.
C.
D.

d. circadian rhythm.

Question

5. The suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) can be thought of as a master clock for our daily rhythm. The SCN sends messages to the ________, which regulates patterns of hunger and temperature, and the ________, which regulates alertness and sleepiness.

A.
B.
C.
D.

c. hypothalamus; reticular formation

Question

6. Shift workers can have problems with their sleep-wake cycles, sometimes resulting in ________, which refers to difficulty falling asleep and sleeping soundly.

A.
B.
C.
D.

a. insomnia

Question

7. If we hook you up to an electroencephalogram (EEG) as you become drowsy, the EEG would begin to show ________ waves.

A.
B.
C.
D.

b. alpha

Question

8. The fifth stage of sleep is known as ________, when brain activity looks similar to that of someone who is wide awake.

A.
B.
C.
D.

d. REM sleep

Question

9. If you deprive people of REM sleep, this can result in:

A.
B.
C.
D.

a. REM rebound.

Question

10. According to Sigmund Freud’s theory, dreams are a form of:

A.
B.
C.
D.

b. wish fulfillment.

Question

11. People with damage to specific areas of the limbic system and forebrain do not have dreams or experience abnormal dreams. Which of the following explains this finding?

A.
B.
C.
D.

d. the neurocognitive theory

Question

12. ________ such as caffeine, alcohol, and hallucinogens can cause changes in psychological activities, for example, sensation, perception, attention, and judgment.

A.
B.
C.
D.

c. Psychoactive drugs

Question

13. Methamphetamine stimulates the release of the brain’s pleasure-producing neurotransmitter ________, causing a surge in energy and alertness.

A.
B.
C.
D.

a. dopamine

Question

14. Which is the number one cause of premature death worldwide?

A.
B.
C.
D.

b. tobacco

Question

15. Drug use can be fueled by dependence. ________ dependence means the body no longer functions normally without the drug, and one sign of this type of dependence is ________, as indicated by the symptoms that occur when the drug is withheld.

A.
B.
C.
D.

c. Physiological; withdrawal

Question

16. Give an example showing that you are still conscious when asleep.

Answers will vary. If someone walks into your room while you are asleep, you wake up immediately if there is a noise. You hear a text message come in during the night and immediately wake up to answer the message.

Question

17. Describe automatic processing, and give two reasons why it is important.

Without one’s awareness, the brain determines what is important, what requires immediate attention, and what can be processed and stored for later use if necessary. This automatic processing happens involuntarily, with little or no conscious effort, and is important because our sensory systems absorb large amounts of information that need to be processed. But it would not be possible to be consciously aware of all of it. Automatic processing also enables sensory adaption, which is the tendency to become less sensitive to and less aware of constant stimuli after a period of time.

Question

18. Interns and residents in hospitals sometimes work 48-hour shifts. Why would you not want a doctor keeping such a schedule to care for you at the end of her shift?

We might not want a doctor with such a schedule to care for us because staying up for 48 hours can result in problems with memory, attention, reaction time, and decision making, all important processes that doctors use in caring for patients. Sleep deprivation impairs the ability to focus attention on a single activity, such as delivering medical care.

Question

19. Name and describe four different sleep disturbances. Differentiate them by describing their characteristics.

Answers will vary. See Table 4.1 for information on sleep disturbances and their defining characteristics.

Question

20. Give four examples of drugs that people use legally on a daily basis.

Answers will vary. There are many different drugs that people use legally on an everyday basis. Caffeine is a psychoactive drug found in coffee, soda, tea, and some medicines. Over-the-counter pain-killers are legal drugs used to treat minor aches and pains. Nicotine is a highly addictive drug found in cigarettes or cigars. Alcohol is a legal psychoactive drug used on a daily basis by many people, as they drink a glass of wine or beer with an evening meal.

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