5.2 What Is Learning?

When does learning begin? Studies suggest that learning can begin before we are even born—prior to birth, a baby has already begun to single out the sound of his mother’s voice (Kisilevsky et al., 2008). And learning may continue until our dying day. But what exactly is learning? Psychologists define learning as a relatively enduring change in behavior or thinking that results from our experiences. Although learning leads to changes in the brain, including alterations to individual neurons as well as their networks, modifications of behavior and thinking are not always permanent (a fact that will be discussed later in the chapter).

The ability to learn is not unique to humans. Trout can learn to press a pendulum to get food (Yue, Duncan, & Moccia, 2008); orangutans can pick up whistling (Wich et al., 2009); and, research suggests, even honeybees can be trained to differentiate among photos of human faces (Dyer, Neumeyer, & Chittka, 2005). One of the most basic forms of learning occurs during the process of habituation (hah-bi-chü-ā-shən), which is evident when an organism does not respond as strongly or as often to an event or occurrence following multiple exposures to that event. This type of learning is apparent in a wide range of living beings, from humans to sea slugs (Chapter 6). Although an organism might initially respond to a stimulus, which is an event that generally leads to a response or reaction, with repeated exposures, the stimulus is increasingly ignored and habituation occurs. Essentially, an organism learns about a stimulus but begins to ignore it as it is repeated.

A great deal of research on learning has been conducted using a wide range of animals. The history of psychology is full of stories about scientists who began studying animal biology but then switched their focus to the study of animal behavior as unexpected events unfolded in the laboratory. These scientists were often excited to find the connections between biology and experience that became evident as they explored the principles of learning.

Animals are often excellent models for studying and understanding human behavior. Conducting research with them sidesteps many of the ethical dilemmas that arise with human research. It’s generally considered okay to keep rats, cats, and birds in cages (as long as they are otherwise treated humanely) to ensure control over experimental variables, but locking up people in laboratories would obviously be unacceptable.

This chapter focuses on three major types of learning: classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and observational learning. As you make your way through these pages, you will begin to realize that learning is very much about creating associations. Through classical conditioning, we associate two different stimuli: for example, the sound of a bell and food. In operant conditioning, we make connections between our behaviors and their consequences: for example, through rewards and punishments. With observational learning, we learn by watching and imitating other people, establishing a closer link between our behavior and the behavior of others.

Suited Up to Swim Ivonne and her guide prepare for the 2012 Paratriathlon World Championships in Auckland, New Zealand. Ivonne is about to begin the swim portion of the triathlon, which takes place in the frigid ocean waters along Queens Wharf. She wears a wetsuit to keep her warm. The red string just below her knee is the tether that keeps her connected to the guide.

G. John Schmidt/Courtesy Ivonne Mosquera-Schmidt

Learning can occur in predictable or unexpected ways. It allows us to grow and change, and it is a key to achieving goals. Now let’s see how learning has shaped the lives of Ivonne Mosquera-Schmidt and Jeremy Lin. We begin in the most unexpected place: the locker room of a swimming pool.