5.6 Summary of Concepts

Summary of Concepts

LO 1     Define learning.

Learning is a relatively enduring change in behavior or thinking that results from experiences. Organisms as simple as fish and as complex as humans have the ability to learn. Learning is about creating associations. Sometimes we associate two different stimuli (classical conditioning). At other times we make connections between our behaviors and their consequences (operant conditioning), and we can also learn by watching and imitating others (observational learning), creating a link between our behavior and the behavior of others.

LO 2     Explain what Pavlov’s studies teach us about classical conditioning.

Studies such as those on Pavlov’s dogs teach us how organisms learn to respond. In Pavlov’s work, the dogs associated a variety of stimuli with the anticipation of food, which resulted in salivating. He discovered how associations develop through the process of learning, which he referred to as conditioning. Classical conditioning is the process in which two stimuli become associated with each other; an originally neutral stimulus is conditioned to elicit an involuntary response.

LO 3     Evaluate the differences between the US, UR, CS, and CR.

In classical conditioning, a neutral stimulus is something in the environment that does not normally cause a relevant automatic or reflexive response. This stimulus is repeatedly paired with an unconditioned stimulus (US) that results in an unconditioned response (UR). The neutral stimulus thus becomes a conditioned stimulus (CS) that the organism learns to associate with the US. The CS elicits a conditioned response (CR), which is the learned response an organism has to the CS. The initial pairing of a neutral stimulus with a US is called acquisition.

LO 4     Recognize and give examples of stimulus discrimination and stimulus generalization.

Once the association is forged between a CS and a CR, the learner often responds to similar stimuli as if they are the CS. This is called stimulus generalization. For example, someone who has been bitten by a small dog and reacts with fear to all dogs, big and small, demonstrates stimulus generalization. Stimulus discrimination is the ability to differentiate between the CS and other stimuli sufficiently different from it. Someone who was bitten by a small dog may only be afraid of small dogs, but not large dogs, thus demonstrating stimulus discrimination.

LO 5     Summarize how classical conditioning is dependent on the biology of the organism.

A conditioned taste aversion is a form of classical conditioning that occurs when an organism learns to associate the taste of a particular food or drink with illness. Avoiding foods that induce sickness has adaptive value, increasing the odds the organism will survive and reproduce, passing its genes along to the next generation. Animals and people show biological preparedness, or are predisposed or inclined to learn such associations.

LO 6     Evaluate the Little Albert study and explain how fear can be learned.

The classic Little Albert experiment illustrated the conditioned emotional response, an emotional reaction (fear in Little Albert’s case) acquired via classical conditioning. When Little Albert heard a loud bang, this was a US that elicited fear (the UR). Through conditioning, the sight of a rat became paired with the loud noise and went from being a neutral stimulus to a CS. Little Albert’s fear became a CR.

LO 7     Describe Thorndike’s law of effect.

Thorndike’s law of effect was foundational in our understanding of operant conditioning, a type of learning in which people or animals come to associate their voluntary actions with the consequences of those actions. The law of effect states that if a behavior is followed by a pleasurable outcome, this increases the likelihood the behavior will occur again. Building on Thorndike’s law of effect and Watson’s behaviorism, Skinner used reinforcers to change behaviors through small steps toward a desired behavior.

LO 8     Explain shaping and the method of successive approximations.

Shaping allows us to reinforce each incremental change in behavior to accomplish a larger goal. When trying to shape animals’ behavior through these successive approximations, we may run into trouble with instinctive drift. Animal behavior can be shaped using successive approximations, but instinct can interfere with parts of the process.

LO 9     Identify the differences between positive and negative reinforcement.

Positive reinforcement refers to the process of applying reinforcers that increase future occurrences of a targeted behavior. The fish treats that Thorndike gave his cats are examples of positive reinforcers (strengthening the likelihood of the cats opening the latch). Behaviors can also increase in response to negative reinforcement through the process of taking away (or subtracting) something unpleasant. Putting on a seat belt in a car to stop an annoying beep is an example of negative reinforcement (strengthening the likelihood of wearing a seat belt). Both positive and negative reinforcement increase desired behaviors.

LO 10     Distinguish between primary and secondary reinforcers.

There are two major categories of reinforcers. Primary reinforcers satisfy biological needs. Food, water, and physical contact are considered primary reinforcers. Secondary reinforcers do not satisfy biological needs, but often derive their power from their connection with primary reinforcers. Money is an example of a secondary reinforcer; we know from experience that it gives us access to primary reinforcers, such as food, a safe place to live, and perhaps even the ability to attract desirable mates.

LO 11     Describe continuous reinforcement and partial reinforcement.

Reinforcers can be delivered on a constant basis (continuous reinforcement) or intermittently (partial reinforcement). Continuous reinforcement is generally more effective for establishing a behavior, whereas partial reinforcement is more resistant to extinction (the partial reinforcement effect) and useful for maintaining behavior.

LO 12     Name the schedules of reinforcement and give examples of each.

B. F. Skinner, a leading behaviorist whose research with “Skinner boxes” illuminated the principles of operant conditioning, described several types of partial reinforcement schedules. In a fixed-ratio schedule, the participant must exhibit a predetermined number of desired responses or behaviors before a reinforcer is given. In a variable-ratio schedule, the number of desired responses or behaviors that must occur before a reinforcer is given changes across trials and is based on an average number of responses to be reinforced. In a fixed-interval schedule, the reinforcer comes after a preestablished interval of time goes by; the response or behavior is only reinforced after the given interval is over. In a variable-interval schedule, the reinforcement comes after an interval of time goes by, but the length of the interval changes from trial to trial. The lengths of these intervals are within a predetermined range based on a desired average interval length.

LO 13     Explain how punishment differs from negative reinforcement.

In contrast to reinforcement, which makes a behavior more likely to recur, the goal of punishment is to decrease a behavior. Negative reinforcement differs from punishment because it strengthens a behavior that it follows by removing something aversive or disagreeable. Punishment decreases a behavior by instilling an association between a behavior and some unwanted consequence (for example, between stealing and going to jail, or between misbehaving and a spanking).

LO 14     Summarize what Bandura’s classic Bobo doll study teaches us about learning.

Watching a model demonstrate a behavior, observational learning can occur. Albert Bandura’s classic Bobo doll experiment showed that children readily imitate aggression when they see it modeled by adults. Studies suggest that children and adults may be inclined to mimic aggressive behaviors seen in TV shows, movies, video games, and on the Internet. Prosocial behaviors, on the other hand, can encourage kindness, generosity, and forms of behavior that benefit others.

LO 15     Describe latent learning and explain how cognition is involved in learning.

Learning can occur without reinforcement. Edward Tolman showed that rats could learn to navigate mazes even when given no rewards. The animals developed cognitive maps, or mental images of the mazes, yet their learning only became apparent when it was needed (latent learning). The rats were learning without reinforcement, just for the sake of learning. This cognitive approach to learning reminds us that measurable behaviors and cognitive processes are necessary and complementary elements in the study of learning.

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