Summary of Concepts
LO 1 Define cognition and explain how it is related to thinking.
Cognition is the mental activity associated with obtaining, converting, and using knowledge. Thinking is a more specific type of cognition, which involves coming to a decision, reaching a solution, forming a belief, or developing an attitude. Cognition is a broad term that describes mental activity, and thinking is a subset of cognition.
LO 2 Define concepts and identify how they are organized.
Concepts are the mental representations of categories of objects, situations, and ideas that belong together based on their central features or characteristics. Psychologists often use a three-level hierarchy to categorize objects. At the top of the hierarchy are superordinate concepts, the broadest category encompassing all the objects belonging to it. Below is the more specific midlevel or basic level of the hierarchy, the category used most often to identify objects. At the bottom of the hierarchy is the subordinate-level, the most specific category.
LO 3 Differentiate between formal concepts and natural concepts.
Formal concepts are created through rigid and logical rules, or features of a concept. Natural concepts, on the other hand, are acquired through everyday experience. Natural concepts don’t have the same types of rigid rules for identification that formal concepts do, and this makes them harder to outline. We organize our worlds with the help of prototypes, which are the ideal or most representative examples of particular natural concepts.
LO 4 Describe the biological processes associated with cognition.
The biology of cognition is evident in the brain, both on a micro and macro level. Changes at the level of the neuron, whether through rewiring, heightened excitability, or increased efficiency of synaptic transmission, make it possible to store, retrieve, and manipulate information. The plasticity of the brain enables dramatic recoveries from trauma.
LO 5 Explain how trial and error and algorithms can be used to solve problems.
Problem solving refers to the variety of approaches used to achieve goals. One approach to problem solving is trial and error, which involves finding a solution through a series of attempts. Algorithms provide a virtually guaranteed solution to a problem by providing a formula or set of rules. Unlike trial and error, algorithms ensure that you will reach a solution if you follow all the steps.
LO 6 Identify different types of heuristics used to solve problems.
Heuristics refer to a problem-solving approach that incorporates a rule of thumb or broad application of a strategy. One commonly used heuristic involves creating subgoals or subproblems. Another commonly used heuristic is means–ends analysis, which involves figuring out how to decrease the distance between a goal and current status. Using means–ends analysis, you can break a problem into subproblems and solve them independently.
LO 7 Define decision making and explain how heuristics can lead us astray.
Decision making generally refers to the cognitive process of choosing among various ways to reach a goal. Sometimes a decision is based on a single feature. With more complex decisions, we tend to consider a variety of features. Using the availability heuristic, we predict the probability of something happening in the future based on how easily we can recall a similar type of event from the past. If we can easily recall a similar type of event, then we judge that event as being more likely to occur. With the representativeness heuristic, we evaluate the degree to which the primary characteristics of an event, person, or situation are similar to our prototype of that type of person or situation.
LO 8 Define language and give examples of its basic elements.
Language can be defined as a system for using symbols to think and communicate. These symbols are words, gestures, or sounds, and there are specific rules for putting them together. Phonemes are the basic building blocks of spoken language. Morphemes consist of one or more phonemes and represent the fundamental units of meaning. The syntax of a language refers to the collection of rules guiding word choice and word order. Grammar refers to the rules associated with word and sentence structures and how these are formed from their components. Semantics refers to rules that are used to bring meaning to words and sentences. Pragmatics refers to the social rules for using language.
LO 9 Identify the linguistic relativity hypothesis and its relation to language and thought.
The linguistic relativity hypothesis proposes that language differences lead to disparities in thinking and perception. Most psychologists agree that although language might not determine thinking and perception, it certainly can influence it.
LO 10 Examine and distinguish among various theories of intelligence.
Charles Spearman speculated that intelligence consists of a general intelligence (or g factor), which refers to a singular underlying aptitude or intellectual ability. Howard Gardner suggested we have multiple intelligences, proposing eight different types of intelligences or “frames of mind”: linguistic (verbal), logical-mathematical, spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, musical, intrapersonal, interpersonal, and naturalist. Robert Sternberg proposed three kinds of intelligences. His triarchic theory of intelligence suggests that humans have varying degrees of analytical, creative, and practical abilities.
LO 11 Describe how intelligence is measured and identify important characteristics of assessment.
Some tests of intelligence aim to measure aptitude, or a person’s potential for learning. Measures of achievement are designed to assess acquired knowledge (what a person has learned). Psychologists must ensure the accurate assessment of intelligence by determining validity, that is, the degree to which the test measures what it intends to measure. Another important characteristic is reliability, the ability of a test to provide consistent, reproducible results. A reliable test, given repeatedly, will result in similar scores.
LO 12 Define creativity and its associated characteristics.
Creativity is the ability to construct valuable results in innovative ways. Most psychologists agree on the basic characteristics of creativity, including originality, fluency, and flexibility. Because creativity is not evident in a singular or uniform manner, it is difficult to measure.
achievement
algorithm
aptitude
availability heuristic
cognition
concept
confirmation bias
convergent thinking
creativity
culture-fair intelligence test
decision making
divergent thinking
dyslexia
emotional intelligence
formal concept
framing effect
functional fixedness
general intelligence (g factor)
gifted
grammar
heritability
heuristics
insight
intelligence
intelligence quotient (IQ)
language
means–ends analysis
mental age (MA)
morpheme
natural concepts
normal curve
phonemes
pragmatics
problem solving
prototype
reliability
representativeness heuristic
semantics
standardization
syntax
thinking
trial and error
triarchic theory of intelligence
validity
1. _________ is a mental activity associated with obtaining, converting, and using knowledge, and _________ refers to coming to a decision, reaching a solution, or forming a belief.
A. |
B. |
C. |
D. |
d. Cognition; thinking
2. _________ are the mental representations of categories of objects, situations, and ideas that belong together based on their central features or characteristics.
A. |
B. |
C. |
D. |
a. Concepts
3. The boundaries of _________ are imprecise and hard to define, because they do not have rigid rules for identification. For example, not everyone agrees with what qualities make a mother.
A. |
B. |
C. |
D. |
c. natural concepts
4. Following a stroke, the neurons in the brain exhibit greater excitability, rewiring occurs, and there is increased efficiency of synaptic connections, all indicating _________ of the brain.
A. |
B. |
C. |
D. |
b. the plasticity
5. You are at dinner with a friend and you are struggling to determine the tip you should leave. Your friend suggests you do what she does to calculate a 20% tip: Move the decimal to the left one space and multiply by 2. This is an example of using _________ to solve the problem.
A. |
B. |
C. |
D. |
d. an algorithm
6. _________ is thought of as an understanding or solution that occurs in a sudden stroke of clarity. Research suggests activity occurs in the frontal and temporal lobes immediately preceding an “aha!” moment, implying that a reorganization occurs without our awareness.
A. |
B. |
C. |
D. |
a. Insight
7. Factors such as the frequency and vividness of an event make us more likely to predict such an event will occur in the future. This is known as using the:
A. |
B. |
C. |
D. |
b. availability heuristic.
8. Sometimes we do not gather important information when making decisions because we are only looking for evidence that upholds our beliefs. This is known as the:
A. |
B. |
C. |
D. |
d. confirmation bias.
9. The wording of a question can influence the outcome of a decision. People are more likely to prefer ground beef if it is described as 80% lean as opposed to 20% fat. This is an example of:
A. |
B. |
C. |
D. |
c. the framing effect.
10. Infants can recognize and distinguish between all _________ from all languages until about 9 months of age. This is why it is so much more difficult for older children and adults to learn to speak a foreign language without an accent.
A. |
B. |
C. |
D. |
b. phonemes
11. One important component of creativity is _________, which refers to the ability to devise many solutions to a problem.
A. |
B. |
C. |
D. |
a. divergent thinking
12. The word “unexcitable” can be broken into three parts (un, excite, able). Remove one of these and the meaning of the word changes. These three parts represent _________, the fundamental units that bring meaning to a language.
A. |
B. |
C. |
D. |
c. morphemes
13. _________ is one’s innate ability to solve problems, adapt to the environment, and learn from experience.
A. |
B. |
C. |
D. |
d. Intelligence
14. To determine the _________ of an intelligence test, you could give the assessment to a sample of participants and then compare the results with another assessment of intelligence to make sure the test is measuring what it intends to measure.
A. |
B. |
C. |
D. |
b. validity
15. Although there is a consistent gap between how Black Americans and White Americans score on IQ tests, research evidence suggests this is the result of:
A. |
B. |
C. |
D. |
a. environmental factors such as chronic stress.
16. How are formal and natural concepts different from each other? Give examples of each.
Formal concepts are created through rigid and logical rules, or features of a concept. Natural concepts are acquired through everyday experience, and they do not have the same types of rigid rules for identification that formal concepts have.
Examples will vary. An example of a formal concept is the pitch of a sound, which is defined by the frequency of the sound wave. The concept of family is an example of a natural concept. Is a family a group of people who just live together, or do they have to be related genetically? Family is a natural concept that can change based on individual experiences.
17. Explain how the theories of intelligence differ.
See Table 7.2. Charles Spearman speculated that intelligence consists of a general intelligence (or g factor), which refers to a singular underlying aptitude or intellectual ability. Howard Gardner suggested we have multiple intelligences, proposing eight different types of intelligences or “frames of mind”: linguistic (verbal), logical-mathematical, spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, musical, intrapersonal, interpersonal, and naturalist. Robert Sternberg proposed three kinds of intelligences. His triarchic theory of intelligence suggests that humans have varying degrees of analytical, creative, and practical abilities.
18. Many people on the Jersey Shore had to leave their homes when Hurricane Irene hit in 2011. On returning home, they found that no significant damage had occurred. When told to evacuate for Superstorm Sandy in 2012, many of these same residents did not leave. What heuristic do you think they used?
Using the availability heuristic, we predict the probability of something happening in the future based on how easily we can recall a similar type of event from the past. The availability heuristic is essentially a decision-making strategy that relies on memory. They remembered a recent storm in which they did not have to leave their homes, and so they decided it was safe to stay.
19. Why are reliability and validity important in test construction? What is at risk if you have developed an unreliable IQ test? What might happen if your IQ test is not valid?
Reliability is the ability of an assessment to provide consistent, reproducible results. Validity is the degree to which an assessment measures what it intends to measure. An unreliable IQ test might result in getting different scores for the IQ test taken now and again in a few months; it would not be consistent across time, which is counter to what you would expect (we expect level of intelligence to remain fairly stable over time). An IQ test that is not valid would not be able to predict future performance on tasks related to intellectual ability.
20. Using your divergent thinking, how many uses can you think of for a hammer?
Answers will vary. Divergent thinking is the ability to devise many solutions to a problem.
Possible solutions: As a door stop, icebreaker, paper weight, shovel, or axe; for killing a poisonous snake; for putting out cigarettes; for breaking glass; for crushing ingredients for a recipe; for putting out a candle; and so on.
Get personalized practice by logging into LaunchPad at http://www.worthpublishers.com/launchpad/sciam1e
to take the LearningCurve adaptive quizzes for Chapter 7.