10.6 10

Summary of Concepts

LO 1     Define sex and distinguish it from sexuality.

Sex can refer to a sexual act such as intercourse or masturbation. Sex also refers to the classification of someone as male or female based on genetic composition and structure and/or function of reproductive organs. Sexuality refers to sexual activities, attitudes, and behaviors.

LO 2     Identify the biological factors that determine sex.

The 23rd pair of chromosomes, also referred to as the sex chromosomes, provides specific instructions for the zygote to develop into a female or male (the biological sex of the individual). The egg from the mother carries an X chromosome, and the sperm from the father carries either an X chromosome or a Y chromosome. When both members of the 23rd pair are X chromosomes (XX), the zygote will generally develop into a female. When the 23rd pair contains an X chromosome and a Y chromosome (XY), the zygote generally develops into a male.

LO 3     Identify some of the causes of intersexual development.

Intersexuality can result from genetic irregularities, hormone activity early in development, and/or environmental factors. In some cases, there are too many sex chromosomes, or one missing. In other cases, the sex chromosomes are normal, but the developing fetus does not respond to hormones in a typical way.

LO 4     Define gender and explain how culture plays a role in its development.

Gender refers to the dimension of masculinity and femininity based on social, cultural, and psychological characteristics. It is often used in reference to the cultural roles that distinguish males and females. We generally learn by observing other people’s behavior and by internalizing cultural beliefs about what is appropriate for men and women.

LO 5     Distinguish between transgender and transsexual.

Sometimes societal expectations of being male or female differ from what an individual is feeling inwardly, leading to feelings of discontent. Transgender refers to the mismatch between a person’s gender assigned at birth and his or her gender identity. Some transgender people try to resolve this discontent through medical interventions. A transsexual person seeks or undergoes a social transition to an alternative gender by making changes to his or her body through sex reassignment surgery and/or medical treatment.

LO 6     Describe the human sexual response as identified by Masters and Johnson.

The human sexual response is the physiological pattern that occurs during sexual activity. Men and women tend to experience a similar pattern or cycle of excitement, plateau, orgasm, and resolution, but the duration of these phases varies from person to person.

LO 7     Define sexual orientation and summarize how it develops.

According to the American Psychological Association, sexual orientation is the “enduring pattern” of sexual, romantic, and emotional attraction that individuals exhibit toward the same sex, opposite sex, or both sexes. Sexual orientation may be heterosexual (when a person is attracted to members of the opposite sex), homosexual (attracted to members of the same sex), or bisexual (attracted to both sexes). Research has focused on the causes of sexual orientation, but there is no strong evidence pointing to any one factor or factors. Sexual orientation is the result of a complex interaction between nature and nurture.

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LO 8     Identify the symptoms of sexual dysfunctions.

Difficulties related to sexual activity can be divided into four sometimes overlapping categories: desire, arousal, orgasm, and pain. Problems associated with desire must be persistent to be considered a dysfunction.

When an individual has the desire to engage in sexual behavior, but the body does not cooperate, an arousal problem exists. Difficulties with orgasm may include reduced orgasmic intensity and the inability to reach orgasm. Problems associated with pain are more frequently reported by women, and may also be associated with reduced desire and arousal.

LO 9     Classify sexually transmitted infections and identify their causes.

Sexually transmitted infections (STIs) are infections caused by viruses and bacteria and are contracted through sexual activity. Having multiple sexual partners increases the risk of getting an STI; however, awareness that a partner has had (or is having) sex with other partners lowers the risk somewhat. Once aware of a partner’s activities, one is more inclined to take preventive measures, such as using condoms. Syphilis, gonorrhea, and chlamydia are bacterial infections. Genital herpes, human papillomavirus, and human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) are viral infections.

LO 10     Describe human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and its role in acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS).

Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) is spread through the transfer of bodily fluids (blood, semen, vaginal fluid, or breast milk) and eventually causes the breakdown of the immune system. HIV often does not show up on blood tests for up to 6 months after infection occurs; it eventually progresses to acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS), which generally results in a severely compromised immune system. A weakened immune system makes the body much more susceptible to opportunistic infections caused by bacteria, viruses, or fungi, and this vulnerability increases as the disease progresses.

LO 11     Define sexual scripts and describe some of the ways people deviate from sex-related cultural norms.

Sexual scripts are cultural rules about what is and is not appropriate sexual activity. There is a range or continuum of sexual behavior, and the overwhelming majority of it is perfectly normal. Yet some sexual behaviors are rare and/or problematic. For example, paraphilia refers to uncommon sexual behaviors that are repeated and compulsive. Paraphilia typically involves nonhuman objects and may cause suffering or humiliation for those involved.

key terms

acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS)

androgens

androgyny

bisexual

estrogen

gender

gender identity

gender roles

gender schemas

heterosexual

homosexual

human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)

intersexual

orgasm

paraphilia

refractory period

sex

sexual dysfunction

sexual orientation

sexuality

sexually transmitted infections (STIs)

testosterone

transgender

transsexual

TEST PREP  are you ready?

Question

1. __________ refers to a sexual act or the classification of male or female. __________ refers to masculinity and femininity based on social, cultural, and psychological characteristics.

A.
B.
C.
D.

b. Sex; Gender

Question

2. The __________ provide(s) specific instructions on whether a zygote will develop into a male or female, that is, the genetic sex of the individual.

A.
B.
C.
D.

a. 23rd pair of chromosomes

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Question

3. The sensitivity of a fetus to __________ produced during its early development can play a role in the development of intersexuality.

A.
B.
C.
D.

d. hormones

Question

4. A psychologist refers to biological characteristics when discussing a client’s __________, but when talking about sexual attitudes and behaviors, a psychologist is referring to __________.

A.
B.
C.
D.

a. sex; sexuality

Question

5. The general beliefs, in American culture, that men are assertive and logical, and women are caring and emotional represent:

A.
B.
C.
D.

d. gender roles.

Question

6. The acquisition of gender roles can occur through __________, as explained by social-cognitive theory. That is, we are shaped by models in our environment.

A.
B.
C.
D.

c. observational learning

Question

7. According to Masters and Johnson, sexual arousal begins in the __________ phase, when physical changes begin to take place.

A.
B.
C.
D.

a. excitement

Question

8. A family friend confides that he has always had the feeling he was born in the body of a female and that he has started cross-sex hormone treatment. Your friend would be considered __________ by the American Psychiatric Association.

A.
B.
C.
D.

c. transsexual

Question

9. Having older brothers in a family seems to be associated with homosexuality in men. One explanation for this is the maternal immune hypothesis, which suggests that:

A.
B.
C.
D.

b. mothers develop an anti-male antibody while pregnant.

Question

10. Research regarding the sexual response cycle indicates:

A.
B.
C.
D.

d. men and women experience a similar pattern or cycle.

Question

11. Some men experience problems getting or maintaining an erection, which is referred to as:

A.
B.
C.
D.

b. erectile disorder.

Question

12. __________ is spread through the transfer of bodily fluids, such as blood, semen, and breast milk, and it eventually progresses to __________.

A.
B.
C.
D.

a. Human immunodeficiency virus; acquired immune deficiency syndrome

Question

13. People who know their partners have had (or are having) sexual activity with others will

A.
B.
C.
D.

c. have a lower risk of acquiring an STI than those who don’t know of this activity.

Question

14. A friend of yours shies away from some of the more daring sexual escapades her husband suggests. For example, yesterday he asked her to engage in a “threesome.” She unknowingly has learned __________ from her culture, telling her that such sexual behavior is not appropriate.

A.
B.
C.
D.

a. sexual scripts

Question

15. __________ refers to uncommon sexual acts that might involve nonhuman objects, and sometimes results in the suffering or humiliation of those involved.

A.
B.
C.
D.

d. Paraphilia

Question

16. We have noted how difficult it can be to get people to participate in a study, but also to be open and honest in research examining sexual activity. If you were planning to conduct this type of research, how would you go about convincing potential participants that their involvement will be worthwhile and that they should be honest in their responses?

Answers will vary, but might include the following. Explain to potential participants that they will remain anonymous and their responses will be confidential. You might also explain that the study has been approved by an Institutional Review Board, which ensures ethical studies. To help convince them that their participation is worthwhile and that they should be honest, you could remind the participants that because our knowledge of sexual behavior is often limited to self-reporting, their answers will be analyzed as reflective of the population.

Question

17. Explain how gender roles are acquired through culture and learning.

Gender refers to the dimension of masculinity and femininity based on social, cultural, and psychological characteristics. It is often used in reference to the cultural roles that distinguish males and females. We generally learn gender roles by observing other people’s behavior and by internalizing cultural beliefs about what is appropriate for men and women.

Question

18. How would an evolutionary psychologist explain extramarital sex?

In general, the purpose of sex is to reproduce and ensure the survival of the species. To a certain extent, the more children we have, the higher the probability that our genes will outlast us. Evolutionary psychologists might suggest that extramarital sex could support these goals. Men will want to be with a woman (or women) who can bear many children, so men might be motivated to accomplish this through extramarital activities. For a female, involvement in extramarital sex might be more likely if her mate is not fertile. Or, she might seek out an extramarital experience with someone who has more material resources than her mate.

Question

19. Describe the four areas in which sexual dysfunction can occur.

Difficulties related to sexual activity can be divided into four, sometimes overlapping categories: desire, arousal, orgasm, and pain. Problems associated with desire must be persistent to be considered a dysfunction. When an individual has the desire to engage in sexual behavior, but the body does not cooperate, an arousal problem exists. Difficulties with orgasm may include reduced orgasmic intensity and the inability to reach orgasm. Problems associated with pain are more frequently reported by women, and may also be associated with reduced desire and arousal.

Question

20. Describe three paraphilias.

Answers will vary. See Table 10.6.

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