Summary of Concepts
LO 1 Define psychological disorders and the criteria used to identify abnormal behavior.
A psychological disorder is a set of behavioral, emotional, or cognitive symptoms that are significantly distressing in terms of social functioning, work endeavors, and other aspects of life. Abnormal behavior often falls along a continuum and is based on typicality and the 3 Ds: dysfunction, distress, and deviance. This continuum includes what we would consider normal at one end and abnormal at the other end, and is determined in part by one’s culture.
LO 2 Recognize limitations in the classification of psychological disorders.
Although a classification system is important for communication and treatment planning among professionals, one of its limitations is how it leads to labeling and the creation of expectations. Because of the stigma associated with psychological disorders, once given a diagnosis, the effects can be potentially long lasting. Some critics suggest there is too much emphasis on the medical model, which may ignore the importance of psychological and sociocultural factors.
LO 3 Summarize the etiology of psychological disorders.
Psychological disorders can be explained in terms of underlying biological causes, psychological influences, and sociocultural factors. Biological causes include genetic predispositions for disorders as well as neurochemical imbalances. Psychological influences include cognitive factors and developmental experiences. Sociocultural factors, such as poverty and support systems, may also impact the development and course of psychological disorders. The biopsychosocial perspective provides a model for explaining the causes of psychological disorders, which are complicated and often the result of interactions among biological, psychological, and sociocultural factors.
LO 4 Define and illustrate an understanding of anxiety disorders and their causes.
Anxiety disorders are a group of psychological disorders associated with extreme anxiety and/or irrational fears that are debilitating. Panic disorder includes worries about experiencing unexpected panic attacks or losing control. Specific phobias include a distinct fear or anxiety in relation to an object or situation. Agoraphobia is a distinct fear or anxiety related to situations such as public transportation, open spaces, retail stores, crowds, or being alone and away from home. Social anxiety disorder is a type of phobia in which a person has a distinct fear or anxiety regarding social situations, particularly the idea of being scrutinized by others. Someone with generalized anxiety disorder experiences an excessive amount of worry and anxiety about many activities relating to family, health, school, and other aspects of daily life. Anxiety disorders can develop as a result of environmental factors and genetic predisposition, and are more prevalent in women. They can be culture specific and/or learned.
LO 5 Summarize the symptoms and causes of obsessive-compulsive disorder.
Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) includes obsessions and/or compulsions that are very time-consuming (taking more than 1 hour a day) and cause a great deal of distress and disruptions in everyday life. An obsession is a thought, urge, or image that occurs repeatedly, is intrusive and unwelcome, and often causes feelings of intense anxiety and distress. Compulsions are behaviors or “mental acts” that a person repeats over and over in an attempt to neutralize obsessions. Sociocultural factors, learning theory, and biological causes are all involved in the course and maintenance of OCD.
LO 6 Summarize the symptoms and causes of major depressive disorder.
Symptoms of major depressive disorder include feelings of sadness or hopelessness, reduced pleasure, sleeping excessively or not at all, loss of energy, feelings of worthlessness, or difficulties thinking or concentrating. The hallmarks of major depressive disorder are the substantial severity of symptoms and impairment in the ability to perform expected roles. Biological theories suggest the disorder results from a genetic predisposition, neurotransmitters, and hormones. Psychological theories suggest that feelings of learned helplessness and negative thinking may play a role. It is not just one factor involved in major depressive disorder, but rather an interplay of several.
LO 7 Compare and contrast bipolar disorders and major depressive disorder.
A diagnosis of bipolar I disorder requires that a person experience at least one manic episode, substantial distress, and great impairment. Bipolar II disorder requires at least one major depressive episode as well as a hypomanic episode, which is associated with some of the same symptoms as a manic episode, but is not as severe and does not impair one’s ability to function. People with bipolar disorder cycle between extreme highs and lows of emotion and energy that last for days, weeks, or even months. Individuals with major depressive disorder, on the other hand, tend to experience a persistent low mood, loss of energy, and feelings of worthlessness.
LO 8 Recognize the symptoms of schizophrenia.
Schizophrenia is a disabling disorder that can involve delusions, hallucinations, disorganized speech, abnormal psychomotor behavior, diminished speech, limited emotions, or loss of energy. Delusions are strange and false beliefs that a person maintains even when presented with contradictory evidence. Hallucinations are “perception-like experiences” that the individual believes are real, but that are not evident to others.
LO 9 Analyze the biopsychosocial factors that contribute to schizophrenia.
Schizophrenia is a complex psychological disorder that results from biological, psychological, and social factors. Because this disorder springs from a complex interaction of genes and environment, researchers have a hard time predicting who will be affected. The diathesis–stress model takes these factors into account, with diathesis referring to the inherited disposition, and stress referring to the stressors in the environment (internal and external). Genes, neurotransmitters, differences in the brain, and exposure to a virus in utero are all possible biopsychosocial influences in the development of schizophrenia.
LO 10 Differentiate between antisocial and borderline personality disorders.
People with antisocial personality disorder may seek personal gratification even when it means violating ethics and breaking laws. They sometimes deceive others, and exhibit aggressive, impulsive, or irritable behavior. These individuals lack empathy, and may not show concern for others or feel remorse upon hurting someone. Borderline personality disorder is distinguished by an incomplete sense of self and feelings of emptiness. Those affected may exhibit intense anger, have difficulty controlling their temper, and get into physical fights. They can be impulsive, especially where sexual activity, substance abuse, and spending money are concerned. Suicide threats and attempts may occur repeatedly. Both disorders may result in issues connected to intimacy and trust.
LO 11 Identify differences among dissociative disorders.
People suffering from dissociative amnesia seem to lack the ability to remember important personal information about their lives. If a person with dissociative amnesia also wanders in a confused and unexpected manner, this is considered dissociative amnesia with dissociative fugue. Dissociative identity disorder occurs when an individual experiences two or more distinct personalities. This disorder is considered the most complicated and persistent of the dissociative disorders. The commonality in this group of disorders is dissociation, or disturbance in the normally unified experience of psychological functions involved in memory, consciousness, perception, or identity.
abnormal behavior
agoraphobia
antisocial personality disorder
anxiety disorders
bipolar disorder
borderline personality disorder
comorbidity
compulsion
delusions
dissociation
dissociative amnesia
dissociative disorders
dissociative fugue
dissociative identity disorder
dopamine hypothesis
generalized anxiety disorder
hallucinations
insanity
learned helplessness
major depressive disorder
maladaptive behaviors
manic episodes
medical model
negative symptoms
obsession
obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD)
panic attack
panic disorder
personality disorders
positive symptoms
psychological disorder
psychosis
schizophrenia
specific phobia
stigma
1. Although classifying mental disorders through the DSM is helpful to mental health professionals, its use has been criticized because the manual
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c. labels individuals, which only heightens problems with stigma.
2. Melissa experienced recurrent, all-consuming thoughts of disaster and death. These _____________ were accompanied by her _____________, which included reapplying deodorant and taking her clothes on and off up to 20 times a day.
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a. obsessions; compulsions
3. To help explain the causes of psychological disorders, researchers often use the ________________ perspective, which examines the complex interaction of biological, psychological, and sociocultural factors.
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b. biopsychosocial
4. A woman is extremely anxious when she is out in public alone. She no longer uses public transportation, refuses to go to the mall, and does not like being away from home. Perhaps she should get evaluated to see if she has which of the following diagnoses?
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b. agoraphobia
5. A man with a diagnosis of __________ exhibits a distinct fear or anxiety related to social situations, particularly the idea of being scrutinized by those around him. This fear often stems from his preoccupation with offending someone.
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c. social anxiety disorder
6. While walking to class one day, you notice a woman who is short of breath, clutching her chest, and appears light-headed. You are concerned she may be experiencing a heart attack. She tells you she knows it is not her heart, but that she suffers from __________, which involve sudden, extreme fear that escalates quickly.
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c. panic attacks
7. A neighbor describes a newspaper article she read last night about a man in his twenties who has been known to lie and con others, be aggressive and impulsive, and show little empathy or remorse. These are long-standing traits of his, so it is possible that he has
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b. antisocial personality disorder.
8. Which of the following plays a role in the etiology of major depressive disorder?
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d. serotonin
9. One of the major distinctions of bipolar II disorder is that, unlike bipolar I disorder, it involves:
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a. at least one major depressive episode as well as a hypomanic episode.
10. One symptom that both major depressive disorder and bipolar disorder share is
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c. problems associated with sleep.
11. Which of the following is a symptom of a manic episode?
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d. irritability
12. A man with schizophrenia has hallucinations and delusions, and seems to be out of touch with reality. A psychologist explains to his mother that her son is experiencing:
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b. psychosis.
13. A woman in your neighborhood develops a reputation for being emotionally unstable, intense, and extremely needy. She also doesn’t seem to have a sense of herself and complains of feeling empty. She struggles with intimacy and her relationships are unstable. If these are long-standing traits, which of the following might she be evaluated for?
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a. borderline personality disorder
14. Dissociative identity disorder (commonly called multiple personality disorder) involves two or more distinct _________________ within an individual.
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b. personalities
15. Describe the 3 Ds and give an example of each in relation to a psychological disorder.
Answers will vary, but can be based on the following information. Dysfunction is the degree to which a behavior interferes with one’s life or ability to function (for example, washing one’s hands to the point of making them raw). Distress is feeling regularly upset or uncomfortable because of unwanted behaviors or emotions (for example, continually feeling sad and hopeless). Deviance is the degree to which a behavior is considered to be outside of the standards or rules of a society (for example, removing one’s clothes in inappropriate settings).
16. What is wrong with the following statement: “My friend is schizophrenic”?
Answers will vary. This statement does not follow the suggestion of using “people-first language.” Instead, it is defining an individual by her disorder. People are much more than their diagnoses. The diagnosis does not describe who your friend is, but only what is causing her distress or discomfort.
17. How can classical conditioning be used to explain the development of panic disorder?
Classical conditioning can play a role in the development of a panic disorder by pairing an initially neutral stimulus (for example, a mall) with an unexpected panic attack (the unconditioned stimulus). The panic attack location then becomes a conditioned stimulus. When the location is visited or even considered, a panic attack can ensue (now the conditioned response).
18. How does negative thinking lead to depression?
Cognitive therapist Aaron Beck suggested that depression is a product of a cognitive triad, which includes a negative view of experiences, self, and the future. Negative thinking may lead to self-defeating behaviors, which, in turn, reinforce the beliefs.
19. Briefly summarize the theories of the etiology of schizophrenia.
Answers will vary, but can be based on the following information. Schizophrenia is a complex psychological disorder that results from biological, psychological, and social factors. Because this disorder springs from a complex interaction of genes and environment, researchers have a hard time predicting who will be affected. The diathesis–stress model takes these factors into account, with diathesis referring to an inherited disposition (for example, to schizophrenia) and stress referring to the stressors in the environment (internal and external). Genes, neurotransmitters, differences in the brain, and exposure to a virus in utero are all possible biological factors. Neurotransmitters are also thought to play a role in schizophrenia. The dopamine hypothesis, for example, suggests that the synthesis, release, and concentrations of dopamine are all elevated in people who have been diagnosed with schizophrenia and are suffering from psychosis. There are several environmental triggers thought to be involved in one’s risk for developing the disorder as well as the severity of symptoms (for example, complications at birth, social stress, and cannabis abuse are related to a slightly increased risk of schizophrenia onset).
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