15.7 Summary of Concepts

Summary of Concepts

LO 1     Define social psychology and identify how it is different from sociology.

Social psychology is the study of human cognition, emotion, and behavior in relation to others. This includes how we perceive and react to others, are influenced by interactions with others, and behave in social settings. Social psychology focuses on studying individuals in relation to others and groups, whereas sociology studies the groups themselves—their cultures, societies, and subcultures. Using the same general research methods as other psychologists, social psychologists often conduct studies involving confederates, or people who are secretly working for them. At the end of a study, researchers debrief participants, or review aspects of the research they had previously concealed.

LO 2     Describe social cognition and how we use attributions to explain behavior.

Social cognition refers to the way we think about others, attend to social information, and use this information in our lives, both consciously and unconsciously. Attributions are the beliefs we develop to explain human behaviors and characteristics, as well as situations. Because attributions rely on whatever information happens to be available (our observations of what people say and do, for example), they are vulnerable to personal bias and inaccuracies.

LO 3     Explain how attributions lead to mistakes about the causes of behaviors.

Situational attributions are a type of external attribution in which the assumed causes of behaviors are in the environment. Dispositional attributions are a type of internal attribution in which the causes of behaviors are thought to be traits or characteristics. When people make attributions, they are often guessing about the causes of events or behaviors, leaving plenty of room for error.

The fundamental attribution error assumes the causes of behaviors are in the person (dispositional) as opposed to the environment (situational). The just-world hypothesis assumes that if someone is suffering, he must have done something to deserve it. The self-serving bias attributes one’s successes to internal characteristics and one’s failures to environmental factors.

LO 4     Describe social influence and recognize the factors associated with persuasion.

Social influence refers to the way a person is affected by another person (or other people), as apparent in behavior, emotion, and cognition. Expectations are an often overlooked form of social influence. Students in Rosenthal’s study who were expected to show surprising gains actually did as a result of the high expectations placed on them. Persuasion is intentionally trying to make people change their attitudes and beliefs, which may (or may not) lead to changes in their behavior. There are three factors that determine persuasive power: the source, the message, and the audience.

LO 5     Define compliance and explain some of the techniques used to gain it.

Compliance occurs when someone voluntarily changes her behavior at the request or direction of another person or group, who in general does not have any true authority over her. One commonly used method is the foot-in-the-door technique, which occurs when an individual initially makes a small request, followed by a larger one. Another method for gaining compliance is the door-in-the-face technique, which involves making a large request, followed by a smaller one.

LO 6     Evaluate conformity and identify the factors that influence the likelihood of someone conforming.

The urge to modify behaviors, attitudes, beliefs, and opinions to match those of others is known as conformity. There are three major reasons we conform. Most people want approval, to be liked and accepted by others. This desire, known as normative social influence, can have a significant impact on behaviors. A second reason to conform is that we want to be correct. We look to others for confirmation when we are uncertain about something, and then do as they do. This is known as informational social influence. Finally, we may conform to others because they belong to a certain reference group we respect, admire, or long to join.

LO 7     Describe obedience and explain how Stanley Milgram studied it.

Obedience occurs when we change our behavior, or act in a way that we might not normally act, because we have been ordered to do so by an authority figure. Milgram conducted a series of studies examining how far people will go when urged by an authority figure to inflict punishment on others. During an early experiment, the goal was for the confederate (learner) to memorize a set of paired words. The participant (teacher) sat at a table, which held a control panel for administering electrical “shocks.” The teacher was told to administer a shock each time the learner made a mistake, and the shock was to increase by 15 volts for every mistake. Milgram was surprised that so many people obeyed the experimenter and continued to administer “shocks” to the learner, even when they hesitated or were uncomfortable, simply because an authority figure had instructed them to do so.

LO 8     Recognize the circumstances that influence the occurrence of the bystander effect.

When a person is in trouble, bystanders have the tendency to assume that someone else will help—and therefore they stand by and do nothing, due in part to the diffusion of responsibility. This bystander effect is particularly true when there are many other people present. Individuals are more likely to aid a person in distress if no one else is present.

LO 9     Demonstrate an understanding of aggression and identify some of its causes.

Aggression is defined as intimidating or threatening behavior, or attitudes intended to hurt someone. Research on aggression suggests that it has a biological basis (for instance, high levels of testosterone and low levels of serotonin). In addition, the frustration-aggression hypothesis suggests that in a frustrating situation, we can all show aggressive behavior.

LO 10     Recognize how group affiliation influences the development of stereotypes.

Stereotypes are the conclusions or inferences we make about people who are different from us, based on their group membership (such as race, religion, age, or gender). When we hold a stereotype about a particular group, we tend to have a set of characteristics in mind that describe the members of that group, one that is often rooted in subjective observations and value judgments. A stereotype threat is a situational threat in which a person is aware of others’ negative expectations. This leads to a fear of being judged and/or treated as inferior, and it can actually undermine performance in a specific area associated with the stereotype.

When we see the world only from the perspective of our own group, this leads to ethnocentrism. This type of group identification can lead to stereotyping and discrimination, which involves showing favoritism or hostility to others because of their affiliation with a group. People who harbor stereotypes and blame scapegoats are more likely to feel prejudice, that is, hostile or negative attitudes toward individuals or groups.

LO 11     Compare prosocial behavior and altruism.

Behavior aimed at benefiting others is known as prosocial behavior. Altruism is a desire or motivation to help others with no expectation of anything in return. The ability to understand and recognize another’s emotional perspective is a major component of altruism.

LO 12     Identify the three major factors contributing to interpersonal attraction.

Interpersonal attraction, or the factors that lead us to form friendships or romantic relationships with others, plays a role in determining with whom we choose to spend our time. Three major factors are often apparent: proximity, similarity, and physical attractiveness. Many relationships begin with exhilaration and intense physical attraction, and then evolve into more intimate connections. The combination of connection, concern, care, and intimacy is romantic love. This is similar to passionate love, or love that is based on zealous emotion, leading to intense longing and sexual attraction. As a relationship grows, intimacy and commitment develop into companionate love, which consists of fondness, camaraderie, understanding, and emotional closeness. Consummate love is evident when intimacy and commitment are accompanied by passion.

key terms

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