Chapter 6. Memory: “I Studied All Night for This Exam, But I Can’t Remember a Thing!”

6.1

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You must read each slide, and complete any questions on the slide, in sequence.
I Studied All Night for This Exam, But I Can’t Remember a Thing!
Dr. Taryn A. Myers, Virginia Wesleyan College
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Your Situation
Dr. Taryn A. Myers, Virginia Wesleyan College
Mnemonic
Technique to improve memory.
Method of loci
Associating what you need to remember with a mental journey through places you know well.
Hierarchical structures
A system of meaningful categories and subcategories.
Effortful processing
The encoding and storage of information with conscious effort, or awareness.
Elaborative rehearsal
The method of connecting incoming information to knowledge in long-term memory; a deep level of encoding.
Encoding
The process through which information enters our memory system.
Storage
The process of preserving information for possible recollection in the future.
Retrieval
The process of accessing information encoded and stored in memory.
Distributed practice
Spreading out study sessions over time with breaks in between.
Massed practice
Studying for long periods of time without breaks.
Context-dependent memory
Memories are easier to access when the encoding and retrieval occur in similar contexts.
Encoding specificity principle
Memories are more easily recalled when the context and cues at the time of encoding are similar to those at the time of retrieval.
Infographic
Caiaimage/Sam Edwards/Getty Images

You spent all of last night cramming for your psychology exam. You were sure that you had learned all the necessary information after all that studying. You made it to the test on time, but you struggled to remember a lot of the material. You are frustrated and pretty sure you received a bad grade on the exam despite pulling an all-nighter.

Anderson, A. (2011, January 1). Why testing boosts learning: Getting quizzed strengthens memory-jogging keyword clues. Scientific American Mind. Retrieved from https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/why-testing-boosts-learning/

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What can you do to improve your performance on the next exam? To help you out, we’ll introduce you to some helpful study skills and help you think through the best way to use those skills. To get started, read the following paragraphs from an article in Scientific American titled “Why Testing Boosts Learning.”

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Next, read the following paragraph from the same article, then answer the questions about what you have read in the first two paragraphs:

As expected, students in the practice test group were better at remembering the word pairs during a final exam a week later. But Rawson and Pyc also asked students to tell them their keywords—for instance, “bird” might serve as a bridge between wingu and cloud—and they revealed that the people in the practice test group not only remembered more of their keywords, but they were more likely to have changed their keyword before restudying the word pairs than those who had not been tested. As the researchers reported in Science last October, these results suggest that testing improves memory by strengthening keyword associations and weeding out clues that do not work.

Anderson, A. (2011, January 1). Why testing boosts learning: Getting quizzed strengthens memory-jogging keyword clues. Scientific American Mind. Retrieved from https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/why-testing-boosts-learning/

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What You Need to Know

Rawson and Pyc’s research gives only one example of the ways that psychology helps us to remember the information we have learned. As you will remember from reading the memory chapter (see what we did there?), there are many ways to improve your memory when studying, which also should improve your test scores.

Some of these techniques include mnemonic devices, the method of loci, and using hierarchical structures to arrange the information in a way that makes sense to you. Perhaps most important is using effortful processing through techniques such as elaborative rehearsal. These techniques will help you to use encoding to enhance both storage and, perhaps most importantly, retrieval of the information. The figure below illustrates how elaborative rehearsal works.

Click on each type of processing to see how likely it is that the memory is stored for you to retrieve later. After all, what good is it to have the information in your memory if you cannot retrieve it and use it when you need to do so, such as on your exam?

You may expand the info in the boxes to the left of the figure

Shallow processing—noticing how the word looks—results in brief memories that may not be recalled later.

Intermediate processing relates to how the word sounds (“fish” rhymes with dish”) and leads to a better likelihood of remembering the information later than shallow processing.

Deep processing involves thinking about the word’s meaning and tying it to memories you already have. This type of processing leads to the strongest likelihood you will store and be able to retrieve the information later.

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Skills You Can Use

Now that you’ve reviewed the concepts behind encoding and the retrieval of information, you want to know what steps to take so you can succeed on your next exam (and retain that information to use in future psychology classes). To get you started, watch the video below of Dr. Katherine Rawson, whose work you read about earlier in this activity.

Video transcript

DOCTOR KATHERINE RAWSON: Students have an immense amount of information that they're expected to learn across several different classes, but coupled with the fact that they have a limited amount of time and energy that they can spend learning the information. So the question is, what is the most effective study strategy for students to use to maximize both of those goals, to be able to learn everything they have to learn, but in the most efficient way possible? And, when I say learn everything they have to learn, ultimately, what we're shooting for is long term learning; a durable learning, acquisition of a knowledge base, and not just transient familiarity with information that then you forget shortly after you've taken an exam. So, that makes the problem even trickier, not only what is an efficient way to learn, but what's an efficient way to learn for the long term?

A common misconception that students have, or a common strategy they report using, at least, is what we refer to as cramming. That is the night before an exam, spend four hours poring over everything, and then walk in, and take your exam the next day. Actually, research suggests that that's not a bad strategy, if you are going to take your exam in a relatively short amount of time right. The problem is it's very, very bad for long term retention. You'll do OK on your exam, but you're not going to remember that information for much beyond that exam.

A better use of your time is to take the same four hours and spread it out. Say, do an hour on four different days. It's the same exact amount of time, but the payoff is huge. The advantage for memory is much greater if you spread that time out across days, rather than doing it all in one fell swoop right before an exam.

What Dr. Rawson is describing is what psychologists call distributed practice, which is much more effective than massed practice, or cramming for an exam.

Another thing that can be helpful to consider is context-dependent memory, or the encoding specificity principle. For better performance on tests, try to replicate the test-taking environment while studying—for example, study in a quiet area—and even sit in the same seat during an exam that you usually sit in during class lecture and discussion. In addition, sleep is important to learning and memory, as it increases the potential for retention for newly acquired information.

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Using what you have learned so far about study skills and memory techniques, decide whether each of the following behaviors would be helpful or not in preparing for your next exam. Move items by dragging them to the correct location or by selecting an item and then selecting the location where it should move.

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Correct! Getting a good night’s sleep, spreading out your studying, and using memory aids can all help you get a better grade.
Actually, getting a good night’s sleep, spreading out your studying, and using memory aids can all help you get a better grade.
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Studying in a loud place when your test environment will be quiet
Studying every other day for several days before the test
Studying only the night before the test
Sitting in the same seat you usually sit in on exam day
Studying by reading the names of terms over and over
Getting 8 hours of sleep the night before
Pulling an all-nighter to cram for the exam
Using a mnemonic device to remember a list of terms
Studying by thinking about what the terms mean and how they relate
Thinking about a list of words within the context of a familiar space
Reading the words without thinking about context
Memorizing where words are on the page

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Your next upcoming exam is your French exam, which entails lots of memorization of vocabulary and the equivalent words in the English language. Watch the following video, where Dr. Rawson explains what her research has found about techniques that may help you study for this exam.

Video transcript

WOMAN: The simplest way to explain our research is with respect to a very common technique that students use, namely flashcards. So the basic idea being that you use that cue on the front to try to retrieve the target information, or the definition, from memory, and then, of course, you flip the card over to check to see if what you've remembered is the right answer. Most students will report using their flashcards, going through the stack until they get an item right once. But then the question is, after you get an item right once, what should you do with it? Well most students say, well, I take it out of the stack and I stop studying it. Our research suggests that that's a mistake, that actually it is time well spent keeping items in the stack of flash cards until you've gotten an answer-- until you've correctly recalled an answer from memory at least three times. After that, there appears to be pretty rapidly diminishing benefit of going beyond three, but at least up to three. It's worth your time.

Another question is, well, how many other days should you pick that stack back up? There again, our research right now is suggesting that the answer is at least three more times. So, after your initial study session with a stack of flash cards, yeah, you should-- it's worth your time to pick that stack back up and practice again at least three more days after that first one, and ideally separated by at least a few days each time.

Question

true
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

6.9

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One of the most important things in this activity is learning how to integrate study skills. Take a look at the infographic below, for a nice walkthrough of how to use these techniques together.

Single lotus flower, fanedison/Shutterstock; Pine chest of drawers, Paul Maguire/Shutterstock; Pansy, AndreyKlepikov/Shutterstock; Green sofa, Shutterstock; Alexander Mozymov/Marigold, Shutterstock; City map with labels, Laralova/Shutterstock;Vintage wooden rocking chair, eurobanks/Shutterstock; Red grape, HeinzTeh/Shutterstock; Peach, Nattika/Shutterstock; Novembercalendar icon, DVARG/Shutterstock; Banana, Tatiana Popova/Shutterstock; Portrait of teenage girl with hand on chin, BLOOMimage/Getty Images; High education (student with chemical models and chemical formula on the blackboard), zorani/Getty Images.

6.10

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matching_test

Question

For your next psychology exam, you are still worried about whether you will remember the Atkinson-Shiffrin model of memory because it consists of so much information. Using what you have learned throughout this activity, match the study technique for this model with the appropriate stage in the infographic. Create matches by selecting the circle next to an option in the left column. Then click on the circle next to the option in the right column where you want to make the match.

8 items left
Correct! An abbreviation is a mnemonic, making a diagram is organizing information, thinking of how you remember a name is elaborative rehearsal, spreading out your studying is distributed practice, and going to bed at a good time is getting some rest.
Actually, an abbreviation is a mnemonic, making a diagram is organizing information, thinking of how you remember a name is elaborative rehearsal, spreading out your studying is distributed practice, and going to bed at a good time is getting some rest.
You study every few days for the week before the exam
You think of the major stages using the acronym “S ST LT” to stand for “sensory, short-term, long-term,” which you pronounce “South Street Left” in your mind
You make sure to go to bed at a decent hour the night before the exam
You think through how you take in and process something like a new person’s name using the stages of the model
You create a diagram for yourself, showing how all the subtypes of each stage of memory branch off from sensory, short-term, or long-term memory
Recall details
Get some rest
Give yourself time
Organize information
Make connections

Question

true
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

6.11

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Think It Through!

One of the most controversial issues related to memory in recent years has been concussions in sports. Nationally, concussions have been discussed in football players and other individuals who have experienced head trauma, such as female soccer players. Watch the video below to learn more about the impact of these head traumas:

Video transcript

MAN: And The story is that, back in April of 2010, she's a soccer player and a softball player. She headed the ball. And as soon as she headed the ball, she got a headache, felt nauseated, was unsteady on her feet.

SYDNEY URZENDOWSKI: I used to play sports, soccer and softball, at my high school. I'm going to be a senior. To be honest, I don't really remember much anymore.

My freshman year I played soccer and softball. And I don't really remember either of those seasons. So from what my coach said, there is just a hard ball that just came darting at me. I guess I headed it and I scored so that's good. But I don't really remember-- I don't remember anything, actually.

MAN: She came back to the sideline. They decided that they would hold her out and repeat the baseline test that she had. She actually had a concussion baseline test.

They repeated that and found that she didn't do as well. And she did significantly worse, in fact, than she did at her baseline. So that, plus her symptoms, they held her out.

SYDNEY URZENDOWSKI: Red flags just popped up everywhere. So they knew I had a concussion.

Question

true
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Question

true
gBnTbqIKgHhRQ70HR3ZLS55srDkGW1keZQEm+mLKKsZmTBLws91+OA9LMsQqNdRahghR5VV/myhpDrZuTzG3uu3pSDxP7bnjoujgzi9ODQVdcjPYNn1BDy2FyWDcuQEoLGgfx25X5o6xclpnbdQAyrgHpgOtslAIECq18ECF9MRAw/R7IgLcrNvgDUeQYJISC/VMT7sAtwkdDgO77ACfT4rEyw5jh905q5m6TH67OzdIc+UCIdL0x/kht0C3dtfcaB7o/wXyfneRGnLNqupmtjuX8ryhmVH+qSdI42KwB16Qd1BiUKmOgiJwlloM4gaYidei6gM2Y19qbyaRhpWjsp8JNugA1lUbnXlVP45Or4wJX4UbNrSdi/xaJYBKgvNrBrNn/1g5LjFFdVOHZVDvt/n6iXmhyJ91qeeWBUmSx41fW057yVcpeE90I2PvUrGfoeI6T4VOjU4lxhLkSCGPSoAgDqlZKYo7qLYBE5O5P2lukp5O2uyiks6o/AWGXxCmDFwjVjbnwb7iRiA6BTks/wJJXsquGjkNwW3F8AdLhxtyTIljy2v6pcHjwkKEZ94hO14pJs1kYqXirF3i1tYbjDpNc+wXIO+uRWlEQ726zhC72WALa1CZbEhIiMyNbTXUxFX5ogqp1LMkXBkH3epoGin10pbDU/bQJHajgq/cBCquiCYcxxD5+1zvJ6vywoy9ErV4iC1gbLy02lZvjF0nR6E2Sw/1KJMJS6spZVOP4hU7Q+V+2bh+LgQzXXFyhE8q4+FeWxc9wwyQnZckLsLjWDQR+IpXvriAWglbO7S+EOSz+3QPPG7F5JvWisaastLMLs4yDN3HNdcq/Xufc2Xd5uBpFEOb4UzzE50FUgPN914l+KSE9g9yHr3rfvMPrDvI2Tp4IC7X/bNi6oGzNKl13CHwvYRycgGmAwuGOAQhweIcg9khUlVHuFqyJNN7AeL0fdEoMnrMnhxLOlGxpRasa1kjs5zoKrW7KoHOKsHD8GWsgDFjcRn7dHiL4jz+GyMbG4CLtXE/qesOilTpk3dbn8TAZpnNhYJ69lf4JQK2VGJVV3h3oXPYyQjX2zl0nqPrXf44rQbX45GUSZk5IQamjyB5lXkLaNazmkQtMatLEFRx9xQYnvZboWS/BYucPPVvNTU0r0uqMMPNNFCo6mJAW4TjV878v+rFwaOmnyMshr1q2u4FDmC+Rep82KH8bmNHZmnYkw==

Question

What difficulties do you imagine Sydney may have had with her schoolwork following her concussion?

46O/GvlXlao=
Answers will vary but should include the point that Sydney’s substantial memory problems would have made it difficult for her to remember information for tests and thus to do well in school.

6.12

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In Your Own Words

Remember the three-paragraph article about the work of Rawson and Pyc at the beginning of this activity? Please answer the following questions about it.

Question

true
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Question

true
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Question

true
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Question

true
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

Question

true
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Question

Did you find some of these questions easier or harder than the others to answer? Based on the research that Rawson and Pyc did, why do you think that was? Did you use any of the techniques you learned throughout this activity in remembering this information? If so, which?

46O/GvlXlao=
Answers will vary, but should say that Rawson and Pyc’s research showed that taking a practice test, like the questions answered at the start of this activity, makes it easier to remember that information later. Therefore, it should have been easier to answer the questions for the information which had been tested before and more difficult to answer the questions which had not been previously tested.

6.13

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Show What You Know!

Question

true
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Question

true
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Question

true
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Question

true
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Question

true
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