11.3 Factors Related to Stress

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First responders encounter a wide variety of scenarios, ranging in intensity from five-car pile-ups to soccer injuries. What determines how a first responder reacts in these situations? There are two types of variables to consider: those that reside within the individual and those that exist in the environment. We can see both of these variables at work in one of the most common stressors of everyday life: conflict.

Conflicts

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Tricky Situation
Police officers deal with a variety of conflicts in their daily work. Imagine you are an officer trying to decide whether to arrest a parent suspected of child abuse. If you make the arrest, the child may be removed from the home and placed in foster care (not an ideal scenario), but at least the threat of abuse is removed. This is an approach–avoidance conflict—the outcome has both positive and negative elements.
Siri Stafford/Getty Images

LO 9 Identify different types of conflicts.

When people think of conflict, they may imagine arguments and fist fights, but conflict can also refer to the discomfort one feels when making tough choices. In an approach–approach conflict, two or more favorable alternatives are pitted against each other. Here, you must choose between two options you find attractive. Imagine this situation: You have to pick only one class this semester, and to fit your schedule, you must choose between two classes you would really like to take. An approach–avoidance conflict occurs when you face a choice or situation that has both favorable and unfavorable characteristics. For example, you are required to take a biology lab class, and although you like biology, you do not like working with other students in lab settings. A third type of conflict is the avoidance–avoidance conflict, which occurs when you are faced with two or more alternatives that are unattractive. In order to fulfill a requirement, you must choose between two courses that you really dread taking.

Let’s see how these types of conflict might arise in police work:

Conflicts can be even more complicated than this. A double approach–avoidance conflict occurs when you must decide between two choices, each possessing attractive and unattractive qualities. For example, you are trying to decide whether to purchase an e-book or a hardcover, so you consider the good and bad qualities of both types of books. On the one hand, the e-book allows for portability and quick access, but it is not a good option if the Internet fails or electricity is unavailable. The hardcover is long lasting and always accessible, but it is heavy and more expensive. You might even have to deal with multiple approach–avoidance conflicts, which occur when you are faced with a decision that has more than two possible choices. You are trying to decide where to live when you attend college in a new city. Should you apply for a dormitory room, look for an apartment, share a house, or live with a family member? Each of these choices has attractive and unattractive qualities.

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Sometimes conflicts and other stressors pile up so high they become difficult to tolerate. When we can no longer deal with stress in a constructive way, we experience what psychologists call burnout.

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Drained
A nurse holds a patient’s IV bag in the emergency room. Nursing is one of the professions associated with high burnout—the emotional, mental, and physical exhaustion that develops when a person faces constant challenges.
Lisa Krantz/San Antonio Express-News/Zuma Press

image AMBULANCE BURNOUT Kehlen has been in the EMS field for nearly a decade, and most of that time he has spent working for a private ambulance company. He estimates that the average ambulance worker lasts about 8 years before quitting to pursue another line of work. What makes this career so hard to endure? The pay is modest, the 24-hour shifts grueling, and the constant exposure to trauma profoundly disturbing. The pressure to perform is enormous, but there is seldom a “thank-you” or recognition for a job well done. Perhaps no other profession involves so much responsibility—combined with so little appreciation. “The ambulance crews, they’re kind of like the silent heroes,” Kehlen explains. “You work so hard and you don’t get any thanks at the end of the day.”

burnout Emotional, mental, and physical fatigue that results in reduced motivation, enthusiasm, and performance.

It might not surprise you that the EMS profession has one of the highest rates of burnout (Gayton & Lovell, 2012). Burnout refers to emotional, mental, and physical fatigue that results from repeated exposure to challenges, leading to reduced motivation, enthusiasm, and performance. People who work in the helping professions, such as nurses, mental health professionals, and child protection workers, are clearly at risk for burnout (Jenaro, Flores, & Arias, 2007; Linnerooth, Mrdjenovich, & Moore, 2011; Rupert, Stevanovic, & Hunley, 2009).image

I Can Deal: Coping with Stress

Eric: Do you ever feel so overwhelmed that you can't relax?
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Police officers are also susceptible to burnout. The nature of the work they do, the size of the department they work in, and the amount of trust in their coworkers all play a role (McCarty, Schuck, Skogan, & Rosenbaum, 2011, January 7). To survive and thrive in this career, you must excel under pressure. Police departments need officers who are emotionally stable and capable of making split-second decisions with potentially serious ethical implications. If a tired, stressed-out officer makes one bad decision, the reputation of the entire police department could be tarnished. No wonder over 90% of city police departments in the United States require job applicants to take psychological tests, such as the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory–2 (MMPI–2; Butcher & Rouse, 1996; Cochrane, Tett, & Vandecreek, 2003). Psychological testing is just one hurdle facing the aspiring police officer; some departments also insist on full-length meetings with a psychologist. Most city agencies require criminal background checks, polygraph (lie detector) tests, and physical fitness assessments. And don’t forget the 1,000-or-so hours of training at the police academy (Cochrane et al., 2003). But even after overcoming all the hurdles of the hiring process, some police officers end up struggling with stress management. In this respect, police work is like any other field; there will always be people who have trouble coping with the stress of the job.

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LO 10 Illustrate how appraisal influences coping.

CONNECTIONS

In Chapter 9, we described the cognitive appraisal theory of emotion, which suggests that emotion results from the way people appraise or interpret interactions they have. We appraise events based on their significance, and our subjective appraisal influences our response to stressors.

coping The cognitive, behavioral, and emotional abilities used to effectively manage something that is perceived as difficult or challenging.

primary appraisal One’s initial assessment of a situation to determine its personal impact and whether it is irrelevant, positive, challenging, or harmful.

secondary appraisal An assessment to determine how to respond to a challenging or threatening situation.

APPRAISAL AND COPING Needless to say, people respond to stress in their own unique ways. Psychologist Richard Lazarus (1922–2002) suggested that stress is the result of a person’s appraisal of a stressor, not necessarily the stressor itself (Folkman & Lazarus, 1985; Lazarus & Folkman, 1984). This viewpoint stands in contrast to Selye’s suggestion (noted earlier) that we all react to stressors in a similar manner. Coping refers to the cognitive, behavioral, and emotional abilities used to manage something that is perceived as difficult or challenging. In order to cope, we must determine if an event is harmful, threatening, or challenging (Infographic 11.3). A person making a primary appraisal of a situation determines how the event will affect him. He must decide if it is irrelevant, positive, challenging, or harmful. Next, the individual makes a secondary appraisal, or decides how to respond. If he believes he can cope with virtually any challenge that comes his way, the impact of stress remains low. If he thinks his coping abilities are poor, then the impact of stress will be high. These differences in appraisals help explain why two people can react to the same event in dramatically different ways.

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INFOGRAPHIC 11.3

Figure 11.3: INFOGRAPHIC 11.3
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problem-focused coping A coping strategy in which a person deals directly with a problem by attempting to solve and address it head-on.

emotion-focused coping A coping strategy in which a person addresses the emotions that surround a problem, as opposed to trying to solve it.

There are two basic types of coping. Problem-focused coping means taking a direct approach, confronting a problem head-on. Suppose you are having trouble in a relationship; an example of problem-focused coping might be reading self-help books or finding a counselor. Emotion-focused coping involves addressing the emotions that surround a problem, rather than trying to solve it. With a troubled relationship, you might think about your feelings, look to friends for support, or exercise to take your mind off it, instead of addressing the problem directly. Sometimes it’s better to use emotion-focused coping—when an emotional reaction might be too stressful or interferes with daily functioning, or when a problem cannot be solved (for example, the death of a loved one). In the long run, however, problem-focused coping is usually more productive.

Eric: Do you ever feel so overwhelmed that you can't relax?
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image IT’S A PERSONAL THING  In June 2011 Eric began his second run through Onondaga’s police training program. This time around, he nailed the Emergency Vehicle Operations Course (EVOC). “I can’t even describe to you how great it felt.” The secret to his success? “Instead of worrying about everything, I had fun,” Eric says. “Once you relax … [it] helps you focus better.” Eric graduated in December 2011. He soon landed a position with a local police department.

“Police training is different everywhere,” says Eric, who chose the police academy at Onondaga Community College because of its rigor. No training program can totally prepare you for police work, but the academy makes every effort to simulate real-world scenarios. “The individuals who can deal with stress in the best way make it through,” says Eric. “Those that cannot weed themselves out on their own.”image

LO 11 Describe Type A and Type B personalities and explain how they relate to stress.

Type A personality Competitive, aggressive, impatient, and often hostile pattern of behaviors.

Type B personality Relaxed, patient, and nonaggressive pattern of behaviors.

TYPE A AND TYPE B PERSONALITIES Personality appears to have a profound effect on coping style and predispositions to stress-related illness. For example, people with certain personality types are more prone to developing cardiovascular disease. Cardiologists Meyer Friedman (1910–2001) and Ray Rosenman (1920–2013) were among the first to suspect a link between personality type and the cardiovascular problems they observed in their patients (Friedman & Rosenman, 1974). In particular, they noted that many of the people they treated were intensely focused on time and always in a hurry. This characteristic pattern of behaviors eventually was referred to as Type A personality. Someone with a Type A personality is competitive, aggressive, impatient, and often hostile (Diamond, 1982; Smith & Ruiz, 2002). Through numerous studies, Friedman and Rosenman discovered that people with Type A personalities were twice as likely to develop cardiovascular disease as those with Type B personality. People with Type B personality are often more relaxed, patient, and nonaggressive (Rosenman et al., 1975). There appear to be various reasons people with Type A personality suffer disproportionately from cardiovascular disease: they are more likely to have high blood pressure, heart rate, and stress hormone levels. Type A individuals are also prone to more interpersonal problems (for example, arguments, fights, or hostile interactions), which increase the time their bodies are prepared for fight or flight.

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Laid-Back Lochte
Olympic swimmer Ryan Lochte appears to have what psychologists call a Type B personality—he is easygoing, relaxed, and apparently not preoccupied with beating other swimmers. As Lochte once told Reuters, “I told myself I’ll quit swimming once I stop having fun, and right now I’m having a blast. I’m not thinking about the money or medals or anything else, I’m just having fun racing” (Linden, 2012, July 5).
AP Photo/Daniel Ochoa De Olza

Although many years of research confirmed the relationship between Type A behavior and coronary heart problems, some researchers began to report findings inconsistent with this (Smith & MacKenzie, 2006). Failure to reproduce the results led some to question the validity of this relationship, although one major factor was a lack of consistency in research methodology. For example, some studies used samples with high-risk participants, whereas others included healthy people. As researchers continued to probe the relationship between personality type and coronary heart disease, they found that the component of hostility in Type A personality was the strongest predictor of coronary heart disease.

TYPE D PERSONALITY More recently, researchers have suggested another personality type that may better predict how patients fare when they already have heart disease: Type D personality, where the “D” refers to distress (Denollet & Conraads, 2011). Someone with Type D personality is characterized by emotions like worry, tension, bad moods, and social inhibition (avoids confronting others, poor social skills). There is a clear link between Type D characteristics and a “poor prognosis” in patients with coronary heart disease (Denollet & Conraads, 2011). In other words, people who have heart problems and exhibit these Type D characteristics are more likely to struggle with their illness. It could be that people with Type D personality tend to avoid dealing with their problems directly and don’t take advantage of social support. Such an approach might lead to poor choices about coping with stressors over time (Martin et al., 2011).

hardiness A personality characteristic indicating an ability to remain resilient and optimistic despite intensely stressful situations.

THE THREE Cs OF HARDINESS Clearly, not everyone has the same tolerance for stress (Ganzel, Morris, & Wethington, 2010; Straub, 2012). Some people seem capable of handling intensely stressful situations, such as war and poverty. These individuals appear to have a personality characteristic referred to as hardiness, meaning that even when functioning under a great deal of stress, they are very resilient and tend to remain positive. Kehlen, who considers himself “a very optimistic person,” may fit into this category, and findings from one study of Scottish ambulance personnel suggest that EMS workers with this characteristic are less likely to experience burnout (Alexander & Klein, 2001).

Kobasa (1979) and others have studied how some executives seem to withstand the effects of extremely stressful jobs. Their hardiness appears to be associated with three characteristics: feeling a strong commitment to work and personal matters; believing they are in control of the events in their lives and not victims of circumstances; and not feeling threatened by challenges, but rather seeing them as opportunities for growth.

I Am in Control

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It’s My Life
A nursing home white board displays a list of menu items and activities that residents can choose from. One study found that putting nursing home residents in charge of their daily activities led to increased levels of energy, health, and social engagement. Their empowerment was also associated with lower death rates (Rodin & Langer, 1977).
AP Photo/Charles Rex Arbogast

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The ability to manage stress is very much dependent on one’s perceived level of personal control. Psychologists have consistently found that people who believe they have control over their lives and circumstances are less likely to experience the negative impact of stressors than those who do not feel the same control. For example, Langer and Rodin (1976) conducted a series of studies using nursing home residents as participants. Residents in a “responsibility-induced” group were allowed to make a variety of choices about their daily activities and their environments. Members of the “comparison” group were not given these kinds of choices; instead, the nursing home staff made all of these decisions for them (the residents were told the staff were responsible for their happiness and care). After following the residents for 18 months, the researchers found that members of the responsibility-induced group were more lively, active in their social lives, and healthier than the residents in the comparison group. And twice as many of the residents in the comparison group died during this period (Rodin & Langer, 1977).

CONNECTIONS

In Chapter 10, we discussed locus of control, a key component of personality. Someone with an internal locus of control believes the causes of outcomes reside within him. A person with an external locus of control thinks causes of outcomes reside outside him. Here, we see that higher personal control is associated with better health outcomes.

Researchers have examined how having a sense of personal control relates to a variety of health issues across all ages. Feelings of control are linked to how patients fare with some diseases. Cancer patients who exhibit a “helpless attitude” regarding their disease seem more likely to experience a recurrence of the cancer than those with perceptions of greater control. Why would this be? Women who have had breast cancer and believe they maintain control over their lifestyle, through diet and exercise, are more likely to make proactive changes related to their health, and perhaps reduce risk factors associated with recurrence (Costanzo, Lutgendorf, & Roeder, 2011). The same type of relationship is apparent in cardiovascular disease; the less control people feel they have, the greater their risk (Shapiro, Schwartz, & Astin, 1996). As we pointed out, having choices increases a perceived sense of control.

Feelings of control may also have a more direct effect on the body; for example, a sense of powerlessness is associated with increases in catecholamines and corticosteroids, both key players in a physiological response to stressors. Some have suggested a causal relationship between feelings of perceived control and immune system function; the greater the sense of control, the better the functioning of the immune system (Shapiro et al., 1996). But these are correlations, and the direction of causality should not be assumed. Could it be that better immune functioning, and thus better health, might increase a sense of control?

We must also consider cross-cultural differences. Individual control is emphasized and valued in individualist cultures like our own, but not necessarily in collectivistic cultures, where people look to “powerful others” and “chance factors” to explain events and guide decision making (Cheng, Cheung, Chio, & Chan, 2013).

LOCUS OF CONTROL Differences in perceived sense of control stem from beliefs about where control resides (Rotter, 1966). Someone with an internal locus of control generally feels she is in control of life and its circumstances; she probably believes it is important to take charge and make changes when problems occur. A person with an external locus of control generally feels as if chance, luck, or fate is responsible for her circumstances; there is no point in trying to change things or make them better. Imagine that a doctor tells a patient he needs to change his lifestyle and start exercising. If the patient has an internal locus of control, he will likely take charge and start walking to work or hitting the gym; he expects his actions will impact his health. If the patient has an external locus of control, he is more apt to think his actions won’t make a difference and may not attempt lifestyle changes. In the 1970 British Cohort Study, researchers examined over 11,000 children at age 10, and then assessed their health at age 30. Participants with an internal locus of control, measured at 10 years of age, were less likely as adults to be overweight or obese, and had lower levels of psychological problems. They were also less likely to smoke and more likely to exercise regularly than people with a more external locus of control (Gale, Batty, & Deary, 2008).

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image FROM AMBULANCE TO FIREHOUSE  Kehlen’s original career goal was to become a firefighter, but jobs are extremely hard to come by in this field. Fresh out of high school, Kehlen joined an ambulance crew with the goal of moving on to the firehouse. Seven years later, he reached his destination. Kehlen is now a firefighter paramedic with the Pueblo Fire Department. His job description still includes performing CPR, inserting breathing tubes, and delivering lifesaving medical care. But now he can also be seen handling fire hoses and rushing into 800-degree buildings with 80 pounds of gear.

Compared to an ambulance, the firehouse environment is far more conducive to managing stress. For starters, there is enormous social support. Fellow firefighters are a lot like family members. They eat together, go to sleep together, and wake to the same flashing lights and tones announcing the latest emergency. “The fire department is such a brotherhood,” Kehlen says. Spending a third of his life at the firehouse with colleagues, Kehlen has come to know and trust them on a deep level. They discuss disturbing events they witness and help each other recover emotionally. “If you don’t talk about it,” says Kehlen, “it’s just going to wear on you.” Another major benefit of working at the firehouse is having the freedom to exercise, which Kehlen considers a major stress reliever. The firefighters are actually required to work out 1 hour per day during their shifts.

Ambulance work is quite another story. Kehlen and his coworkers were friends, but they didn’t share the tight bonds that Kehlen now has with fellow firefighters. And eating healthy and exercising were almost impossible. Ambulance workers don’t have the luxury of making a healthy meal in a kitchen. They often have no choice but to drive to the nearest fast-food restaurant and wipe the crumbs off their faces as they race to the next emergency. One of the worst aspects of the job was the lack of exercise. Says Kehlen, “That killed me when I was in the ambulance.”image

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Camaraderie
Firefighters climb the notoriously difficult “Incline,” a seemingly endless set of stairs up Pikes Peak in Manitou Springs, Colorado. Every year on the morning of September 11, the firefighters walk up the 1-mile path to commemorate those who died in the 9/11 terrorist attacks. The tight-knit community at the firehouse provides Kehlen with friendship, emotional support, and a great deal of stress reduction.
Nicole Pritts

Tools for Healthy Living

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LO 12 Discuss several tools for reducing stress and maintaining health.

Dealing with stressors can be challenging, but you don’t have to grin and bear it. There are many simple ways to manage and reduce stress. Let’s take a look at two powerful stress-fighting weapons: physical exercise and relaxation techniques.

Apply This

Everyday Stress Relievers

You are feeling the pressure. Exam time is here, and you haven’t cracked open a book because you’ve been so busy at work. The holidays are approaching, you have not purchased a single present, and the pile of unpaid bills on your desk is starting to build. With so much to do, you feel paralyzed. In these types of situations, the best solution may be to drop to the floor to do some push-ups, or run out the door and take a jog. When you come back, you feel a new sense of calm. I can handle this, you’ll think to yourself. One thing at a time.

How does exercise work its magic? Physiologically, we know exercise increases blood flow, activates the autonomic nervous system, and helps initiate the release of several hormones. These physiological reactions help the body defend itself from potential illnesses, especially those that are stress related. Exercise also spurs the release of the body’s natural painkilling and pleasure-inducing neurotransmitters, the endorphins (Salmon, 2001).

When it comes to choosing an exercise regimen, the tough part is finding an activity that is intense enough to reduce the impact of stress, but sufficiently enjoyable to keep you coming back for more. Research suggests that only 30 minutes of daily exercise is needed to decrease the risk of heart disease, stroke, hypertension, certain types of cancer, and diabetes (Warburton, Charlesworth, Ivey, Nettlefold, & Bredin, 2010) and improve mood (Bryan, Hutchison, Seals, & Allen, 2007; Hansen, Stevens, & Coast, 2001). And exercise needn’t be a chore. Your daily 30 minutes could mean dancing to Just Dance 6 on the Wii, going for a bike ride, raking leaves on a beautiful fall day, or shoveling snow in a winter wonderland.

Exercise is all about getting the body moving, but relaxing the muscles can also relieve stress. “Just relax.” We have heard it said a thousand times, but do we really know how to begin? Physician and physiologist Edmund Jacobson (1938) introduced a technique known as progressive muscle relaxation, which has since been expanded upon. With this technique, you begin by tensing a muscle group (for example, your toes) for about 10 seconds, and then releasing as you focus on the tension leaving. Next you progress to another muscle group, such as the calves, and then the thighs, buttocks, stomach, shoulders, arms, neck, and so on. After several weeks of practice, you will begin to recognize where you hold tension in your muscles—at least this is the goal. Once you become aware of that tension, you can focus on relaxing those specific muscles without going through the entire process. Progressive muscle relaxation has been shown to diffuse anxiety in highly stressed college students. In one study, researchers found that just 20 minutes of progressive muscle relaxation had “significant short-term effects,” including decreases in anxiety, blood pressure, and heart rate (Dolbier & Rush, 2012). Participants also reported a feeling of increased control and energy. This relaxation response may also serve as an effective way to reduce pain (Benson, 2000; Dusek et al., 2008). image

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CONTROVERSIES

Meditate on This

image An increasingly popular way to induce relaxation is meditation. If you’ve ever known an anxious person who began meditating regularly, you know that it can have a dramatic “chilling out” effect. A sense of serenity seems to envelop people who take up meditation. But anecdotal evidence or folk wisdom is no substitute for scientific data. What does the research say?

… JUST THINKING MEDITATION IS BENEFICIAL MAY AFFECT THE WAY PEOPLE PERCEIVE AND REPORT ITS EFFECTS.

Numerous studies point to a variety of meditation-related physical and mental health benefits, including increased immune system activity, enhanced empathy, and reduced levels of anxiety, neuroticism, and negative emotions (Davidson et al., 2003; Roemer, Orsillo, & Salters-Pedneault, 2008; Sedlmeier et al., 2012; Walsh, 2011). This all sounds great, but some scholars assert that many meditation studies are riddled with methodological flaws and lack the support of solid theoretical frameworks (Ireland, 2012; Sedlmeier et al., 2012).

In many cases, it’s unclear whether meditation or some other lifestyle factor such as regular exercise is causing the positive effects researchers have observed. It’s also important to recognize that the expectations of research participants can sway study results in a favorable direction. In other words, just thinking meditation is beneficial may affect the way people perceive and report its effects. Meditation may exert a placebo effect, leading its practitioners to believe that their efforts are paying off. If this is the case, the beliefs (rather than the meditation) are producing the health benefits.

That said, we should point out that long-term meditation has been shown to produce observable changes in the brain (Davidson & Lutz, 2008; Hölzel et al., 2011). There is little doubt that something important happens when a person meditates, and that something appears to be positive.image

Many forms of meditation emphasize control and awareness of breathing. This may be one of the reasons people find meditation so relaxing. Taking slow, deep breaths is a fast and easy way to reduce the impact of stress.

Using a clock or watch to time yourself, breathe in slowly for 5 seconds. Then exhale slowly for 5 seconds. Do this for 1 minute. With each breath, you begin to slow down and relax. The key is to breathe deeply. Draw your breath deep into the diaphragm and avoid shallow, rapid chest breathing.

try this

biofeedback A technique that involves providing visual or auditory information about biological processes, allowing a person to control physiological activity (for example, heart rate, blood pressure, and skin temperature).

BIOFEEDBACK A proven method for reducing physiological responses to stressors is biofeedback. This technique builds on learning principles to teach control of seemingly involuntary physiological activity (such as heart rate, blood pressure, and skin temperature). The biofeedback equipment monitors internal responses and provides visual or auditory signals to help a person identify those that are maladaptive (for example, tense shoulder muscles). The person begins by focusing on a signal (a light or tone, for example) that indicates when a desired response occurs. By learning to control this biofeedback indicator, the person learns to maintain the desired response (relaxed shoulders in this example). The goal is to be able to tap into this technique outside of the clinic or lab, and translate what has been learned into real-life practice.

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Body Connection
A patient at the Max Planck Institute in Munich, Germany, combats back pain using biofeedback, a learning technique that enables a person to manipulate seemingly automatic functions, such as heart rate and blood pressure. With the help of a monitor that signals the occurrence of a target response, a patient can learn how to sustain this response longer.
Ronald Frommann/laif/Redux

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The use of biofeedback can decrease the frequency of headaches and chronic pain (Flor & Birbaumer, 1993; Sun-Edelstein & Mauskop, 2011). It appears to be useful for all age groups, including children, adolescents, and the elderly (Morone & Greco, 2007; Palermo, Eccleston, Lewandowski, Williams, & Morley, 2010).

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What Goes Around
Volunteers in Chongqing, China, celebrate Father’s Day with elderly men in a nursing home. Altruism, or helping others because it feels good, is an excellent stress reliever.

SOCIAL SUPPORT Up until now, we have discussed ways to manage the body’s physiological response to stressors. There are also situational methods to deal with stressors, like maintaining a social support network. Researchers have found that proactively participating in positive enduring relationships with family, friends, and religious groups can generate a health benefit similar to exercise and not smoking (House, Landis, & Umberson, 1988). People who maintain positive, supportive relationships also have better overall health (Walsh, 2011).

You might expect that receiving support is the key to lowering stress, but research suggests that giving support also really matters. In a study of older married adults, researchers reported reduced mortality rates for participants who indicated that they helped or supported others, including friends, spouses, relatives, and neighbors. There were no reductions in mortality, however, associated with receiving support from others (Brown, Nesse, Vinokur, & Smith, 2003).

Helping others because it gives you pleasure, and expecting nothing in return, is known as altruism, and it appears to be an effective stress reducer and happiness booster (Schwartz, Keyl, Marcum, & Bode, 2009; Schwartz, Meisenhelder, Yunsheng, & Reed, 2003). When we care for others, we generally don’t have time to focus on our own problems; we also come to recognize that others may be dealing with more troubling circumstances than we are.

FAITH, RELIGION, AND PRAYER Psychologists are also discovering the health benefits of faith, religion, and prayer. Research suggests elderly people who actively participate in religious services or pray experience improved health and noticeably lower rates of depression than those who don’t participate in such activities (Lawler-Row & Elliott, 2009; Powell, Shahabi, & Thoresen, 2003). In fact, religious affiliation is associated with increased reports of happiness and physical health (Green & Elliott, 2010).

These various types of proactive, stress-reducing behaviors reflect a certain type of attitude. You might call it a positive psychology attitude.

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Apply This

THINK again

Think Positive

image In the very first chapter of this book, we introduced a field of study known as positive psychology, “the study of positive emotions, positive character traits, and enabling institutions” (Seligman & Steen, 2005, p. 410). Rather than focusing on mental illness and abnormal behavior, positive psychology emphasizes human strengths and virtues. The goal is well-being and fulfillment, and that means “satisfaction” with the past, “hope and optimism” for the future, and “flow and happiness” at the current time (Seligman & Csikszentmihalyi, 2000, p. 5).

… YOUR CURRENT STRESS LEVEL IS WITHIN YOUR CONTROL.

As we wrap up this chapter on stress and health, we encourage you to focus on that third category: flow and happiness in the present moment. No matter what stressors come your way, try to stay grounded in the here and now. The past is the past, the future is uncertain, but this moment is yours. Finding a way to enjoy the present is one of the best ways to reduce stress. We also remind you that your current stress level is very much within your control. If you’re feeling overwhelmed, make time to engage in activities such as exercise and meditation, which produce measurable changes in the body and brain. image

image TO PROTECT, SERVE, AND NOT GET TOO STRESSED  If you’re wondering how Eric Flansburg and Kehlen Kirby are doing these days, both young men are thriving in their careers. Eric joined the police department in Cicero, New York. “I love it,” he says. “Can’t see myself doing anything else.” Recently Eric, his wife, and their two sons (Eric Junior, 6, and Nathan, 2) experienced a major stressor: their home was destroyed in a fire. Thankfully no one was hurt, and the damage was covered by insurance. Something positive actually came out of the crisis: the family emerged stronger and closer than ever.

image Having worked at the fire station since 2010, Kehlen is really getting into the fire department groove. He was recently promoted to “engineer,” which means he is now responsible for driving the fire engine (in addition to all his firefighting and paramedic responsibilities). When he’s not putting out fires and rescuing people, Kehlen helps his wife run her family medicine practice and cares for his 3-year-old daughter, Kinley, and his 1-year-old son, Knox. “[Kinley] is one of my biggest stress relievers,” suggests Kehlen. “Just chasing her around is enough of a stress reliever for anyone.”image

show what you know

Question 1

1. Having to choose between two options that are equally attractive to you is called a(n) ____________ conflict.

approach–approach

Question 2

2. ____________ is apparent when a person deals directly with a problem by attempting to solve it.

  1. Emotion-focused coping

  2. Positive psychology

  3. Support seeking

  4. Problem-focused coping

d. Problem-focused coping

Question 3

3. Individuals who are more relaxed, patient, and nonaggressive are considered to have a:

  1. Type A personality.

  2. Type B personality.

  3. Type C personality.

  4. Type D personality.

b. Type B personality.

Question 4

4. Describe three “tools” for healthy living that you could use to improve your health.

Answers may vary. Stress management incorporates tools to lower the impact of possible stressors. Exercise, meditation, progressive muscle relaxation, biofeedback, and social support all have positive physical and psychological effects on the response to stressors. In addition, looking out for the well-being of others by caring and giving of yourself is an effective way to reduce the impact of stress.